Comparative Analysis of the Compound Words (стр. 5 из 6)
There is a correlation and parallelism between the structure of subordinative compound words and corresponding phrases, which manifests it in the morphological character of the components. Compound words are generally made up of the stems of those parts of speech that form the corresponding free word-groups. The stem of the central member or she head2 of the word-group becomes the structural and semantic centre of the compound, i.e. its second component. e.g. heart-sick, is made up of the stems of "the noun' heart and adjective sick which form the corresponding phrase sick at heart, with the adjective sick for its head; man-made consists of the stems of the words that make the corresponding phrase made by man; door-handle similarly corresponds to the handle of the door, clasp-knife to the knife that clasps, etc. In all these cases the stem of the head-member of the word-group, in our case sick-, made-, handle- becomes the structural centre of the corresponding compound, i.e. its second component.
The order of the stems coincides with the word-order in word-groups only in the case of syntactic compounds, such as, e.g., blackboard, mad-doctor, pickpocket, tell-tale, etc., in which the structural centre takes the same place as the head of corresponding word-groups.
In compounds each part of speech correlates only with certain structural types of phrases. For example, productive compound adjectives reveal correlation mostly with adjectival-nominal word-groups,1 i.e. word-groups whose heads are adjectives (or Numerals and Participles) of the type A+prp+N, Ved+ by/with+N, with+A+N, e.g, adjectives oil-rich, heart-sick correspond to word-groups rich in oil, sick at heart (i.e., n+a→A+prp+N); duty-bound, smoke-filled to bound by duty, filled with smoke (i.e., n+ved+Ved+by/with+N); low-ceilinged to with a low ceiling {[(a+n) +ed] →with+A+N}. Productive compound nouns correlate mostly with nominal word-groups (consisting of two nouns), verbal-nominal and verb-adverb word-groups, e.g.. Moonlight, diving-suit, correspond to the light of the moon, a suit for diving" (i.e. n+n→N+prp+N):proof-reader, peace-fighting to (to) read proofs, (to) fight for peace (i.e., n+nv→V+N, V+prp+N), etc. So it follows that the distributional formulas of compound words in each part of speech are circumscribed by the structure of correlated word-groups.
Semantic Correlation.
Semantically, the relations between the components of a compound mirror the semantic relations between the member-words in correlated word-groups. The semantic relations established between the components, for example, in compound adjectives built after n+ved formula, e.g. duty-bound, snow-covered are circumscribed by the instrumental relations typical of the members of correlated word-groups of the type Ved + by /with+N regardless of the actual lexical meanings ofthe stems; compound adjectives of the (a+n)+ed pattern like long-legged, straight-backed mirror possessive relations found between words in correlated word-groups of the with+A+N type, e.g. with long legs, with a straight back; compound nouns built after the pattern n+(v+-er)—letter-writer, bottle-opener, traffic-controller display agentive semantic relations typical of word-groups 'one who writes letters'; 'the thing that opens bottles' built after the general formula N that V+N.
Structural and semantic correlation by no means implies a one-to-one correspondence of each individual pattern of compound words to one word-group formula or pattern. For example the n+nv formula of compound nouns comprises different patterns such as [n+(v+-er)] rocket-flyer, bottle- opener, cover-shooter, [n+(v+-ing] street-fighting, rocket-flying, cover-shooting; both patterns correlate in the final analysis with verbal-nominal word-groups of one formula—V+N or V+prp+N,e.g. to flyrockets, to fight in the streets, to shoot from a cover. However, the reverse relationship is not uncommon, e;g. one distributional formula of compound adjectives (n+a) in words like age-long, sky-high, colour
blind corresponds to a variety of individual word-group patterns which differ in the grammatical and semantic relations between member-words expressed by the preposition, thus, compounds journey-tired, girl-shy, oil-rich, world-wide correspond to tired of journey (A+of+N), shy before girls (A+before+N); rich in oil (A+in+N);wide as the world (A+as+N). Nominal compound made up of two simple noun-stems (n+n) may serve, as another example of the semantic correlation between formulas of compound nouns with a variety of individual patterns of nominal word-groups. Compound nouns like doorstep, hand-bag, handcuffs incorporate manifold semantic relations found between member-words of various patterns of the general formula of word-groups N+prp+N. Nominal compounds appear to express freely in aconcise form what can be expressed only in a more elaborate and complicated periphrastic way by word-groups. "It should be remembered that the semantic relations in some cases may be interpreted differently.
Even the few examples given as illustration lead us to the conclusion that the structure of compound words, as a rule, is more concise and of much wider semantic range than the structure of correlated word-groups due to the fact that compound words do not require any elaborates way to express the relationship between their components except their order. Therefore compound words which establish regular correlative relations with word-groups are on the one hand motivated and on the other hand serve as patterns, or sets of structural and semantic rules guiding the spontaneous formation of new compound words. Consequently motivation and regular semantic and structural correlation between compound words and word-groups may be regarded as factors which arc most conducive to high productivity of compound words. It is natural that formulas which do not establish such regular correlative" relations and which result in compound words characterized by lack or very low degree of motivation, must he regarded as unproductive, for example, compound nouns built after a+n formula, e. g. blackbird, bluebell, mad-doctor, etc., are marked by lack of motivation or high degree of idiomaticity, hence the formula a+n for compound nouns is unproductive for Modern English.
Chapter V
2.5 Diachronic approach to compound words
Like all other linguistic phenomena compounding may be approached synchronically and diachronically. If a synchronic treatment concentrates on structural and semantic features relevant for productive patterning of compound words, the diachronic treatment is concerned with the various changes compound words undergo in the course of time and the way compound words appear in the language. Once a compound has been formed it is subject to all the phonological changes affecting English polysyllabic words. Various changes in the phonetic structure and stress pattern of compound words may result in a number of changes in its morphemic structure. The separate morphemes in a compound may become fused or even lost altogether; the meanings of the components may also fuse in the course of time into a newer meaning or become forgotten. As a result of this process, known as the process of simplification, compound words may undergo such radical changes that they may be even transformed into derived or simple words.[1]
Productive types of compound nouns Table 3
| Free Phrases | Compound Nouns | ||
| Compounds Proper | DerivationalCompounds | Pattern | |
 A. Verbal-Nominal Phrases 1. the reducer of price  to reduce 2. the reducing of prices  prices 3. the reduction of prices to shake 4. the shake of hands hands | 1. price-reducer 2. price-reducing 3. price-reduction4. hand-shake | [n + (v+- er)] [n+ -ing)] [n+(v+--tion/ -ment)][n + (v+conversion) ] | |
| B. Verb-Adverb Phrases to break down to cast away to run away | a break-down a castaway a runaway | [(v+ adv) + conversion ] | |
| C. Nominal Phrases 1. a tray or ashes 2. the neck of the bottle 3. a house in the country; a chair with arms 4. a ship run by steam 5. the doctor is a woman 6. a fish resembling a sword | 1. ash-tray 2. bottle-neck 3. country-house; arm-chair 4. steamship 5. woman-doctor 6. sword-fish | [n2 + n1] | |
There are many words in Modem English that do not in any way differ from the bulk of simple words and yet have undergone the process of simplification and may be traced back to their original compound structure.
Ways of Forming Compounds. Sources of Compounds
The actual process of building compound words may take different forms:
1) Compound words a rule are built spontaneously after productive distributional formulas of the given period. Formulas productive at one time may lose their productivity at another period. Thus at one time the process of building verbs by compounding adverbial and verbal stems was productive, and numerous compound verbs like, e, g. outgrow,overturn, overthrow (adv+v), were formed. The structure ceased to be productive and today no verbs are built in this way.
2) Compounds may be the result of a gradual process of semantic isolation and structural fusion of free word-groups. Such compounds as forget-me-not— 'a small plant with blue1 flowers', scarecrow (from an earlier scare-the-crows)—'a figure used to scare birds away from crops', pickpocket (from pick the pocket)—'one who steals from pockets', bridesmaid—'an unmarried woman attending the bride at a wedding', bull's-eye—'the centre of a target; a kind of hard, globular candy", mainland—'acontinent' all go back to free phrases which became semantically and structurally isolated in the course of time. The words that once made up these phrases have lost, within these particular formations, their integrity, their part-of-speech meaning and the whole phrase has become isolated in form, specialized in meaning andthus turned into an inseparable unit—a word acquiring semantic and morphological unity.
Most of the syntactic compound nouns of the (a+n) structure, e. g. bluebell, blackboard, mad-doctor, are the result of such semantic and structural isolation of free word-groups; to give but one more example—highway was once actually a high way for it was raised above the surrounding countryside for better drainage and ease of travel. Now we use highway without any idea of the original sense of the first element.1
Productive types of compound adjectives Table 3
| Free Phrases | Compound Adjectives | |||
| Compounds Proper | Derivational Compounds | Pattern | Semantic Relations | |
| A. as white as snow | 1. snow-white | — | n+a | Relations of resemblance |
| B. free from carp; rich in oil; greedy for power; tired of pleasure | 2. care-free oil-rich power-greedy pleasure-tired | — | n+a | Various adverbial relations |
| C. covered with snow; bound by duty | 3. snow-coveredduty -bound | — | n +Ved | Instrumental (or agentive relations) |
| D. two days | 4. (a) two-day (beard) (a) seven-year (plan) | — | num + n | Quantitative relations |
| E. with (having) long, legs | — | 5. long-legged | (a+ n) ++ed | Possessive relations |
Conclusion
Modern English is very rich in Compound words. Compound words are made up by joining two or more stems.
Ex: taxi-driver, in German Weltoffenheit, in Uzbek кунгабоқар.
A compound word has a single semantic structure. We distinguish the meaning of the compound words from the combined lexical meaning of its components. Ex: “pencil-case” is a case for pencils. A change in the order of components of compound words brings a change in the lexical meaning.
Ex: life-boat – “a boat of special construction for saving lives. Boat-life – life on board of a ship.
Compound words are classified into completely motivated partially motivated and non-motivated compound words”.
In completely motivated compound words the lexical meaning of compounds is easily deduced from the lexical meanings of the stems.
Ex: book-case, door-handle.
German Lesesaal.
The compound words “a flower-bed, walk-up are partially motivated compounds because we can guess their meaning partially”. The compounds in which the connection between the meaning and structure and the meanings of components of compounds can not seen from the meaning of its components are called non-motivated compound words. Ex: wall-flower – a woman who remains at wall and is not invited to a dance.
Uzbek and German compounds don’t have non-motivation. Compound words may be classified from the functional point of view or according to their belonging to different parts of speech.
Many of English and German compounds belong to nouns and adjectives while Uzbek compounds belong to nouns, adjectives and verbs:
Noun: looking-glass, armchair, homework.
Arbeitkleidung, Naturwissenschaft (German).
хонтахта, сувилон (Uzbek).
Adjective: hard-working, well-behaved, dry-drink.
hell – grün, weltbekannt.
ҳаво ранг, халқаро, меҳнатсевар.
Adverb: indoors, within, outside.
аллаким, шу ерда, у ерда.
From the point of view how the components are joined together the compound words may be classified into: a) components whose components are joined with a die Entwicklungsländer, der Landbau.
This is also one of the criteria of distinguishing of compounds from word groups.
Like other linguistic phenomena we may approach to the study of compounds synchronically and diachronically. Synchronically we study the structural and semantic patterns of compound words while diachronically we study the various changes compound words undergone on the course of time and the way compound words appear in the language.
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