Chapter II Comparison of Nouns in English and Russian languages
2.1 The category of number of Nouns in English and in Russian languages
The noun in Modern English has only two grammatical categories, number and case. The existence of case appears to be doubtful and has to be carefully analysed.
The Modern English noun certainly has not got the category of grammatical gender, which is to be found, for example, in Russian, French, German and Latin. Not a single noun in Modern English shows any peculiarities in its morphology due to its denoting a male or a female being. Thus, the words husband and wife do not show any difference in their forms due to the peculiarities of their lexical meanings. [10,p. 69]
NUMBER
Modern English like most other languages distinguishes two numbers: singular and plural. The meaning of singular and plural seems to be self-explanatory, that is the opposition: one — more than one. With all this, expression of number in different classes of English nouns presents certaindifficulties for a foreigner to master.
As already mentioned, plural and singular nouns stand in contrast as diametrically opposite. Instances are not few, however, when their opposition comes to be neutralised. And this is to say that there are cases when the numeric differentiation appears to be of no importance at all. Here belong many collective abstract and material nouns. If, for instance, we look at the meaning of collective nouns, we cannot fail to see that they denote at the same time a plurality and a unit. They may be said to be doubly countable and thus from a logical point of view form the exact contrast to mass nouns: they are, in fact, at the same time singular and plural, while mass words are logically neither. The double-sidedness of collective nouns weakens the opposition and leads to the development of either Pluralia tantum, as in: weeds (in a garden), ashes, embers, etc., or Singularia tantum, as in: wildfowl, clergy, foliage, etc. [1, p.87]
In some cases usage fluctuates, and the two forms are interchangeable, e. g. brain or brains: he has no brains or little brains; victuals are more common than victual; oats than oat; similarly: His wages were high. How much wages does he get? That is a fair wage. They could not take too much pain.
The dual nature of collective nouns is shown linguistically in various ways: by the number of the verb or by the pronoun referring to it, as for instance, my family are early risers, they are already here.. My family is not large.
It is important to observe that the choice between singular and plural depends on the meaning attached to the noun. Compare also: We have much fruit this year and the rich fruits of the heroic labour of Soviet people are visible from all the corners of the earth.
Similarly: The football team is playing very well. Cf. The football team are having bath and are coming back here for tea.
A word should be said about stylistic transpositions of singular nouns in cases like the following: trees in leaf, to have a keen eye, blue of eye, strong of muscle. Patterns of this kind will exemplify synecdoche — the simplest case of metonymy in grammar ("pars pro toto").
The Germans won the victories. By God they were soldiers. The Old Hun was a soldier. But they were cooked too. They were all cooked... The Hun would come down through the Trentino, and cut the railway at the Vicenza and then where would the Italians be? [6, p.65]
The chap was so big now that he was there nearly all his time, like some immovable, sardonic, humorous eye nothing to decline of men and things. [9, p.84]
Cf. Держи вухо востро. Держи ухо остро. У него наметанный глаз. И слышно было до рассвета, как ликовал француз. [10, p.106]
Other "universals" in expressing plurality will be found in what may be called "augmentative" plurals, i. e. when the plural forms of material nouns are used to denote large amounts of substance, or a high degree of something. This is often the case when we see the matter as it exists in nature. Such plural forms are often used for stylistic purposes in literary prose and poetry,e. g.: the blue waters of the Mediterranean, the sands of the Sahara Desert, the snows of Kilimanjaro.
SimilarlyinRussian: синие воды Средиземного моря, пески Сахары, снега Арктики.
Еще в полях белеет снег,
А воды уж весной шумят. [12, p.96]
Люблю ее степей алмазные снега. [13, p.159]
Ukrainian: Сині води Середземного моря, піски Сахари, сніги Арктики.
Attention must also be drawn to the emotive use of plural forms of abstract verbal nouns in pictorial language:
...it was a thousand pities he had run off with that foreign girl — a governess too! [3, p.69]
The look on her face, such as he had never seen there before, such as she had always hidden from him was full of secret resentments, and longings, and fears.
[5, p.75]
The peculiar look came into Bosinney's face which marked all his enthusiasms.
[3, p.67]
Her face was white and strained but her eyes were steady and sweet and full of pity and unbelief. There was a luminous serenity in them and the innocence in the soft brown depths struck him like a blow in the face, clearing some of the alcohol out of his brain, halting his mad, careering words in mod-flight. [5, p.91]
He stood for a moment looking down at the plain, heart-shaped face with its long window's peak and serious dark eyes. Such an unwordly face, a face with no defenses against life. [5, p.96]
Oh! Wilfrid has emotions, hates, pities, wants; at least, sometimes; when he does, his stuff is jolly good. Otherwise, he just makes a song about nothing — like the rest. [3, p.86]
Plural forms of abstract nouns used for stylistic purposes may be traced in language after language:
Russian: Повсюду страсти роковые
И от судеб защиты нет.[11, p.326]
Отрады. Знаю я сладких четыре отрады.[9, p.267]
Itshouldbenoted, inpassing, that the plural form is sometimes used not only for emphasis in pictorial language but to intensify the aspective meaning of the verb, the iterative character of the action, in particular, e. g.:
Oh, this was just the kind of trouble she had feared would come upon them. All the work of this last year would go for nothing. All her struggles and fears and labours in rain and cold had been wasted. [5, p.102]
Relentless and stealthy, the butler pursued his labours taking things from the various compartments of the sideboard. [3, p.81]
The small moon had soon dropped down, and May night had failed soft and warm, enwrapping with its grape-bloom colour and its scents the billion caprices, intrigues, passions, longings, and regrets of men and women. [3, p.34]
The emotive use of proper nouns in plural is also an effective means of expressive connotation, e. g.:
Fleur, leaning out of her window, heard the hall clock's muffled chime of twelve, the tiny splash of a fish, the sudden shaking of an aspen's leaves in the puffs of breeze that rose along the river, the distant rumble of a night train, and time and again the sounds which none can put a name to in the darkness, soft obscure expressions of uncatalogued emotions from man and beast, bird and machine, or, may be, from departed Forsytes, Darties, Cardigans, taking night strolls back into a world which had once suited their embodied spirits. [3, p.168]
Expressive connotation is particularly strong in the metaphoric use of the plural of nouns denoting things to be considered unique, e. g.: Ahead of them was a tunnel of fire where buildings were blazing on either side of the short, narrow street that led down to the railroad tracks. They plunged into it. A glare brighter than a dozen suns dazzled their eyes, scorching heat seared their skins and the roaring, crackling and crashing beat upon ears in painful waves. [5, p.92]
Very often the plural form, besides its specific meaning may also retain the exact meaning of the singular, which results in homonymy.
1) custom = habit, customs = 1) plural of habit
2) duties
2) colour = tint, colours = 1) plural of tint
2) flag
3) effect = result, effects = 1) results
2) goods and chattels
4) manner = mode or way, manners = 1) modes, ways
2) behaviour
5) number = a total amount of units, numbers = 1) in counting
2) poetry
6) pain = suffering, pains = 1) plural of suffering
2) effort
7) premise = a statement or proposition, premises = 1) propositions
2) surrounding to a house
8) quarter = a fourth part, quarters = 1) fourth parts
2) lodgings
There are also double plurals used with some difference of meanings:
1) brother 1) brothers (sons of one mother)
2) brethren (members of one community)
2) genius 1) geniuses (men of genius)
2) genii (spirits)
3) cloth 1) cloths (kinds of cloth)
2) clothes (articles of dress)
Cf. Russian:
зуб —1) зубы (во рту), 2) зубья (пилы)
муж — 1) мужья, 2) мужи ("ученые мужи")
тон — 1)тона (оттенки), 2) тоны (звуки)
лист — 1) листья(дерева), 2) листы (бумаги, железа)[24]
Mention should be made in this connection of nouns which have two parallel variants in the plural exactly alike in function but different in their stylistic sphere of application, e. g.:
Cow — cows and kine (arch., now chiefly poetic)
Foe — foes and fone (arch.)
Shoe — shoes and shoen (arch.)
Unproductive archaic elements are sometimes used to create the atmosphere of elevated speech. This may also be traced in other languages. Compare the Russian:
сын — 1) сыновья, сыновей;
2) сыны, сынов (e. g.: сыны отечества).
For all the details concerning the grammatical organisation of nouns and their patterning in different kind of structures students are referred to the text-books on English grammar. Two things should be noted here.
It is important to observe that in certain contexts nouns can weaken their meaning of "substance" and approach adjectives thus making the idea of qualities of the given substance predominantin the speaker's mind. Nouns functioning in this position are generally modified by adverbials of degree, e. g.:
"You were always more of a realist than Jon; and never so innocent". [3, 57]
"We're all fond of you", he said, "If you'd only" —he was going to say, "behave yourself", but changed it to — "ifyou'd only be more of a wife to him". [3,98]
"Why had he ever been fool enough to see her again". [3, 198]
"Not much of an animal is it?" groaned Rhett. "Looks like he'll die. But he is the best I could find in the shafts". [3, 32]
The use of a noun rather than an adjective is very often preferred as a more forcible expressive means to intensify the given quality. Compare the following synonymic forms of expression:
He was quite a success. — He was quite successful.
It was good fun. — It was funny.
And here are illustrative examples of nouns weakening their meaning of "substance" and approaching adverbs.
Such adverbial use shows great diversity. Deep-rooted in English grammar, this use is most idiosyncratic in its nature. We find here patterns of different structural meaning:
a) adverbial relations of time, as in: life long, week long, age long, etc.;
b)adverbial relations of comparison: straw yellow, silver grey, ash blond, ice cold, snow white, iron hard, sky blue, dog tired, paper white, pencil thin, ruler straight, primrose yellow, brick red, blade sharp;
c) different degree of quality: mountains high, a bit longer, a trifle easier, a shade darker, ankle deep.
Patterns of this kind are generally used metaphorically and function as expedients to express intensity and emphasis, e. g.: "I'll send Pork to Macon to-morrow to buy more seed. Now the Yankies won't burn it and our troops won't need it. Good Lord, cotton ought to go sky high this fall". [5, p.234]
Further examples are:
He is world too modest. That was lots better. This was heaps better. He was stone deaf to our request. Waves went mountains high. The mud was ankle deep.
Adverbial use of nouns will also be found in such premodification structures as: bone tired, dog tired, mustard coloured, horror struck, etc.
In the grammar of nouns there have also developed interjectional uses which seem to convert nouns into special kind of "intensifiers", e. g.: What the dickens do you want? What the mischief do you want?
Further examples are:
The hell you say = you don't say so.
Like hell I wish \
I will like hell /I will not
Where in the hell you are going?
How the devil should I know?
Adverbs of affirmation and negation yes and no are intensified in emphasis by the proximity of a bald bawling hell, e. g.: Hell, yes! Hell, no!
English plurals end in -s. In Russian, there are more endings to make plurals. They are: masculine ending in a hard consonant; feminine ending in –a(ending for plural-ы);any nouns ending in -ь, -й, -я(-и);neuter ending in –e(-я);neuter ending in –o(-a);masculine and feminine ending in -k, -г, -x, -ч, -щ, -ж, -ш(-и). Examples: стол – столы, двeрь – двери, нога – ноги, мoре – моря, окно – окнa. [24]
Some nouns are always singular. These are nouns that designate substances (oxygen, copper), products (cheese, fish), a block of objects (furniture), some actions (hunting, clearing up), feelings (love, health), some vegetables and berries (potato, carrots).
2.2 The category of case of Nouns in English and in Russian languages
Grammarians seem to be divided in their opinion as to the case-system of English nouns. Open to thought and questioning, this problem has always been much debated. The most common view on the subject is that nouns have only two cases: a common case and a genitive or possessive case.[21, p 69] The common case is characterised by a zero suffix (child, boy, girl, student), the possessive case by the inflection [-z] and its phonetic variants [-s], [-iz], in spelling -'s. The uses of the genitive are known to be specific, those of the common case general. In terms of modern linguistics, we can therefore say that both formally and functionally, (he common case is unmarked and the genitive marked.
There are grammarians, O. Curme and M. Deutschbein,for instance, who recognise four cases making reference to nominative, genitive, dative and accusative: the genitive can be expressed by the -'s-inflection and by the of-phrase, the dative by the preposition to and by word-order, and the accusative by word order alone. E.Sonnensсhein insists that English has a vocative case since we may propose an interjection oh before a name. [3p. 35]
It is to be noted that the choice between the two opposite viewpoints as to the category of case in English remains a matter of linguistic approach. From the viewpoint of inflectional morphology the inadequacy of "prepositional declension" is obvious. Using Latin categories which have no relevance for English involves inventing distinctions for English and ignoring the distinctions that English makes.
The meaning of "accusative" in a two-term system nominative — accusative, for instance, is different from the meaning of "accusative" in a four- or five-term system. The term "common case" seems therefore more justified than "the accusative". If we call him an "accusative" in expressions like Iobey him, I am like him, It was on him, the term "accusative" may actually hinder when we translate into another language which has an accusative along with several other cases and in which the word for obey takes the dative, the word for like the genitive and the word on ablative, as they do in Latin.
"Of course, the morphological opposition nominative — accusative must be expressedby something in English. But this "something" is not a morphological opposition, for there is no morphological differentiation between the nominative and the accusative of nouns". [3, 86]
We must not, of course, look at English through the lattice of categories set up in Latin grammar. The extent to which one can remain unconvinced that English has a grammar like Latin is probably the basis of the faulty viewpoint that English has no grammar at all.
Latin distinguishes subject, direct object, indirect object by case-differences (differences in the inflexion of the word) and arrangement is not very important. English also distinguishes subject, direct object, and indirect object, but it does so largely by arrangement, e. g.: