Augustus Ceasar Essay, Research Paper
Two of the most destructive problems facing the late Roman Republic were
the instability and disunity caused by incessant civil wars. Rome’s rapid
expansion, after the Punic Wars, resulted in socioeconomic changes that
permanently divided the state. Both aristocratic and plebeian parties sought
total control of Rome and tried to destroy each other. Civil war was the
continuation of party politics by other means. Consequently, the power of the
military became supreme. Control of Rome’s armies steadily shifted away from
the legitimate government to the generals because the soldiers began to give their
allegiance to their generals rather than to the civil authorities. On dismissal
from military service, the legionnaires had no farms to return to, and they
depended entirely on whatever land and money their generals could provide since
the government was unwilling or unable to supply veterans with livelihoods.
Thus, the generals became autonomous centers of power. The general who
dominated the strongest army ruled the state. Repeated power struggles of
these military strongmen ignited more civil wars that further undermined the
stability and unity of the late Roman Republic.
Augustus saw how divisive to the Roman polity civil war was. He understood
that control of the legions by the civil government was necessary for the
establishment of peace and order throughout the Roman Empire. He wanted to
reorganize and institute changes in the military to assure that it would not rise
again in support of some triumphant general to challenge the legitimacy of the
state. Since warfare within the Empire was eliminated, the role of the
legions changed. Its main objectives consisted in protecting the borders from
foreign foes and pacifying conquered lands through the gradual introduction of
the Roman language, law, administration, and engineering. Augustus’ priority was
to reduce the number of the legions from 60 to 28, settling in the process more
than 100,000 veterans in colonies in Italy, Africa, Asia, and Syria. While
proscription financed previous resettlement efforts, the vast wealth of Egypt,
which he seized after Antony’s defeat, subsidized Augustus’ massive
resettlement program. He raised the troops’ salary and regularized the payment
of pensions, which consisted of land and money, to veterans. Augustus, thus,
reduced the old threat of soldiers giving their allegiance to wealthy generals
rather than to the state. He also standardized the length of military service.
The Roman legion became a professional, long service force with an esprit de
corp that earlier legions did not have. Each legion was commanded by an officer
of senatorial rank whom Augustus personally appointed, and the legionnaires
pledged their allegiance to Augustus as commander-in-chief. Furthermore,
Augustus recruited soldiers from the Roman provinces. These auxiliary troops
were granted Roman citizenship upon completion of military service, and they
became important agents of Romanization because the provinces now had a share
in the defense of the Empire. In addition, Augustus raised a new military force,
the 9,000-strong Praetorian Guard, to act as personal bodyguards of the
Emperor and to specifically protect the city of Rome from all enemies, foreign
or domestic. He also created a police force for the city, which then had a
population of more than 1,000,000. This measure greatly reduced the crime
rate and the frequency of public riots, both of which were constant problems.
Another problem plaguing the late Roman Republic was the constant revolt
of the provinces because of corruption and mismanagement. Under the early
Republic, the appointed provincial governors served short terms. Many of these
politically appointed governors were either inexperienced or incompetent, so
corruption and fiscal mismanagement were common practices. The greed of
these governors was so intolerable that the populace of one province forced the
imperial tax collectors to drink molten gold. Augustus reformed the provincial
administrative system by creating an imperial civil service whose members
came from a pool of capable administrators that he hand-picked himself. These
new governors were given long terms of office in order to have ample time to
implement long-term reforms. In order to curb corruption, Augustus saw to it
that the governors were compensated fairly for their work. He rewarded those
who did well and demoted those who did poorly. Collected taxes went directly to
the imperial treasury, and Augustus made sure that a certain portion of the
revenues was allocated for the improvement of the provinces and not end up in
the pockets of corrupt tax collectors. Augustus overhauled the inefficient tax
system by ordering a detailed census of all the provinces ( the same census that
forced Joseph and Mary to go to Bethlehem) to find out how many people should
pay taxes. He also gave the provincial inhabitants the chance to voice their
grievances and the certainty that their complaints were taken seriously by Rome.
The constant civil wars during the late Roman Republic ruined the riches of
Italy and the provinces. The state found itself intermittently short of funds.
The main financial problem facing Augustus was how to raise money for military
wages and pensions. This financial problem was partly solved when Augustus
acquired Egypt as his personal possession. All the wealth of Egypt went directly
to the imperial treasury. In turn, Augustus directly controlled the imperial
treasury. So, there was uniformity in the disbursement of funds. He also
created new taxes to boost the government’s income: a sales tax, an inheritance
tax that was mandatory for all Roman citizens, and a tax on the manumission of
slaves. Periodic censuses over the whole Empire were taken to obtain accurate
data for tax collection.
Augustus also aimed to stop the decline of Roman morals, a product of the
decadence caused by economic change, by enacting social reforms. The Lex Julia
de maritis ordinandis prohibited celibacy and childless marriages. It was made
compulsory for Roman citizens to get married. Special benefits, like tax breaks,
were established for couples with children. This law had the added advantage of
replacing the decimated Roman population that was lost during the numerous civil
wars. To handle the issue of adultery, which the Romans then practiced
extensively, Augustus enacted Lex Julia de adulteriis that made adultery a
punishable crime. He also passed laws that restricted luxury and extravagance.
In addition, Augustus placed special significance on the traditional religion of
Rome. He believed that prosperity and peace in the state relied on the faithful
fulfillment of religious duties to the gods. This traditional belief he expressed
by restoring temples and joining the sacred college of pontiffs and augurs, and he
eventually became pontifex maximus. Augustus became not only the secular head
of Roman Empire but the religious leader as well.