Смекни!
smekni.com

Powers Separation Essay Research Paper It has (стр. 1 из 2)

Power`s Separation Essay, Research Paper

It has proved true, historically, that there is a natural tendency of

governments to assume as much power as possible. To prevent this from happening

in the United States, the framers of the Constitution divided the functions of

the federal government among three branches: the executive branch, legislature

or the lawmaking branch and the judiciary. These should be separate and enjoy

equal power and independence. This separation of powers is in direct contrast to

the government in Britain. Their Parliament is the single governing unit.

Members of the executive–the Cabinet and the Prime Minister–are members of

Parliament. The highest court of appeal is the House of Lords. The separation of

powers was also in contrast to the government under the Articles of

Confederation. The Articles provided for no separate executive branch. The

president was the presiding officer of the Congress. There was no national court

system at all. The framers of the Constitution decided on a government in which

the three main functions would be held by three separate branches. The Congress

was empowered to make laws. The president was empowered, through the departments

and agencies of the executive branch, to enforce the laws. The president is thus

the head of the bureaucracy–the non-elected officials of government. The

Supreme Court was established as the highest judicial authority. John Adams

referred to this three-part arrangement as a system of checks and balances that

protect the people from authoritarian or arbitrary rule. In addition to

distributing power among the three branches of the federal government, the

Constitution also distributes it among the states and the people. The Tenth

Amendment specifically reserves all "powers not delegated to the United

States" to the "States respectively, or to the people." Within

each state there are many other governmental units. Each local government, from

the smallest village to the largest city, has its necessary powers. There are

taxing bodies, such as school districts, that have the authority they need in

order to operate. Before continuing to mention how the separation of powers is

applied in the United States presidential system, let me briefly explain the

structure of the presidential system. The Presidential System United States

Government The federal government of the United States was created by the

Constitution, which went into operation in 1789 when the first Congress convened

and George Washington took the oath of office as president. The government is

called federal because it was formed by a compact (the Constitution) among 13

political units (the states). These states agreed to give up part of their

independence, or sovereignty, in order to form a central authority and submit

themselves to it. Thus, what was essentially a group of 13 separate countries

under the Articles of Confederation united to form one nation under the

Constitution. When the Declaration of Independence was issued in 1776, it used

the term United States of America. Until the Constitution was adopted and

ratified, however, the 13 states did not really form one nation. They each held

onto so many powers individually, including conducting foreign policy and trade

negotiations, that the Continental Congress could only do what the states

allowed. The Articles were never the law of the land to the extent that the

Constitution is. In essence, the United States as a nation did not come into

existence until the Constitution began to function as the framework of the

government. Once the Constitution was in place, tension between the states and

the federal government did not automatically cease. Many political thinkers

believed that the states were really the supreme authority. According to this

viewpoint, states could nullify acts of the federal government that were

disagreeable to them. One of the strongest proponents of this view was John C.

Calhoun, senator from South Carolina. His chief opponent was Chief Justice John

Marshall. Calhoun’s position, called states’ rights, has persisted to the

present. It was seriously undermined, however, by the American Civil War. Since

that war the federal government has gained much power at the expense of the

states. The best known characteristic of the presidential system is the

separation of powers. The three principal functions of the government are the

formal promulgation of the law, its administration, and its adjudication. These

are established in separate and co-ordinate branches. We call them the

legislative, the executive and the judicial; they are independent of one

another, but are at the same time made interdependent. (The judicial branch

enjoys a considerable degree of independence in all nations subscribing to the

Anglo-American tradition of jurisprudence, regardless of whether they have

adopted the presidential system.) CONGRESS: The Legislation Branch One of the

most difficult debates in the Constitutional Convention of 1787 centred on

representation. The large states desired representation in proportion to

population in the proposed national legislature. This would, of course, have

allowed them to control legislation because they would have had more legislators

than small states. The small states, conversely, wanted equal representation. On

June 11, 1787, delegate Roger Sherman of Connecticut proposed the plan that was

eventually adopted. It called for a bicameral, or two-house, legislature in

which one house has proportional representation and the other equal

representation. Thus the small states were placated by having equal

representation and the large states with proportional representation. After much

wrangling among the delegates, the plan was adopted on July 16. The Congress was

created by Article I, section 1, of the Constitution: "All legislative

powers herein shall be vested in a Congress of the United States, which shall

consist of a Senate and House of Representatives." Chief among the powers

of congress is the power to assess and collect taxes, for it is this authority

that makes running the whole government, including the other two branches,

possible. The power to decide how to spend money lies in both houses, but only

the House of Representatives has the authority to originate bills for raising

revenue. Each house, because it is the judge of the "qualifications of its

own members," may punish its members for misbehaviour. Members can be

expelled by a two-thirds vote. House of Representatives The House of

Representatives was intended by the framers of the Constitution to reflect the

popular will. Its members therefore are directly elected by the people. The

number of representatives from each state is proportional to the size of the

state’s population. No state, however, has less than one representative.

Representation is reapportioned after every census. After the states receive

their quota of seats, the states themselves determine the boundaries of the

congressional districts. In 1964 the Supreme Court ruled that population sizes

within each district must be approximately equal. The special powers of the

House are two: the right to originate revenue bills and the right to begin

impeachment proceedings. Senate The Senate has 100 members, two for each state.

Since 1913, when the 17th Amendment was ratified, senators have been directly

elected by the people. Prior to that year they were elected by state

legislatures. When vacancies occur between elections, state governors appoint

replacements. The Senate has some special powers not accorded to the House. It

approves or disapproves of presidential appointments; it can approve treaties,

by a two-thirds vote; and it is the court for impeachment trials. To become a

senator an individual must be at least 30 years of age, a citizen of the United

States for nine years, and a resident of the state from which elected. The full

term of a senator is six years. The terms of one third of the members expire

every two years. The presiding officer of the Senate is the vice-president of

the United States. It is the only duty for that official prescribed by the

Constitution. In his absence the presiding officer is the president pro tempore,

meaning "for the time being," who is elected by the membership. As in

the House, there is a majority leader and a minority leader. The Senate majority

leader is often a powerful figure in government, especially if the president is

of the other party. The Senate, in its floor debates, has more freedom of action

than does the House. As a rule, debate on a measure continues until every

senator has had a chance to say everything he wishes on it. Freedom of debate is

occasionally abused by a filibuster, a device by which a senator can talk

endlessly to prevent a bill from coming to a vote. Senate rules provide for

stopping a filibuster by the application of cloture, or closing debate, which

requires the support of two thirds of the members present and voting. The

cloture rule was adopted in 1917. EXECUTIVE BRANCH Just as the delegates to the

Constitutional Convention had differences over the nature of Congress, so too

were there sharp disagreements on the nature of the Executive Office. Should

there be one president or three? Should he serve for life or for a limited term?

Was he eligible for re-election? Should he be elected by the people, by the

governors of the states, or by Congress? The outcome of the debates was Article

II of the Constitution, outlining the office of the president. The presidency

would consist of one individual holding office for four years but eligible for

re-election. Because the delegates did not trust the people to elect a president

directly, they established an indirect method. Electors chosen by state

legislatures (and eventually by the voters) voted for candidates for the

presidency. To be eligible for the presidency a person must be a native-born

citizen, 35 years of age, and must have lived in the United States for at least

14 years. Based on the example set by George Washington, successive presidents

did not seek more than a second term until Franklin D. Roosevelt ran for office

and was elected four times, beginning in 1932. The 22nd Amendment, ratified in

1951, limits the term of office for presidents. The Constitution gives many

specific powers to the president. Other powers have accrued to the office

through laws passed by Congress, through interpretations of laws by the courts,

and through the president’s position as leader of his party. The president is

charged with enforcing all federal laws and with supervising all federal

administrative agencies. In practice these powers are delegated to subordinates.

The president’s principal helpers include the White House staff, specialised

agencies of the Executive Office, and the heads of executive departments and

their agencies and bureau?s. Except for the White House staff, the individuals

in charge of agencies and departments are appointed by the president, subject to

approval by the Senate. The president nominates all officials, administrative or

judicial, who are not civil-service employees. The Constitution gives the

president the power to grant reprieves and pardons to persons convicted of

crimes against the United States. This power is denied only in the case of an

individual convicted on impeachment. The president exercises far-reaching powers

in the conduct of foreign policy. In most cases he acts through the secretary of

state and the Department of State. The president negotiates treaties, mostly

through subordinates. These are subject to confirmation by a two-thirds vote in

the Senate. He nominates ambassadors, ministers, and consuls to represent the

United States abroad. He takes the lead in recognising new regimes or

withholding official recognition. Closely related to his foreign policy

authority is the president’s role as commander in chief of all the armed forces.

He appoints all commissioned officers of the Army, Navy, Air Force, and Marines.

During wartime he may become involved in planning strategy. Proper functioning

of the government depends in great measure on the president’s relations with

Congress. It is his responsibility to keep Congress informed of the need for new

legislation. He must also submit an annual budget for all the government

expenditures. The departments and agencies are required to send Congress

periodic reports of their activities and members of departments and agencies are

often required to testify before committees of Congress on matters of pending

legislation or other issues. In times of war or other national crisis, Congress

usually grants the president emergency powers. These powers include the

authority to issue orders regulating most phases of national life and the war

effort, to organise special agencies of government, and to make appointments

without confirmation. In normal times, as well as during emergencies, Congress

may pass laws establishing a policy but leaving the details to be worked out by

the Executive Office. The president then publishes an executive order that has

the force of law. The only official duty of the vice-president is to preside

over the Senate, though he does not take part in its deliberations. He casts a

deciding vote in case of a tie. In the president’s absence he presides over

meetings of the Cabinet. Originally there were no candidates for this office.

The man receiving the second-largest number of votes for president became

vice-president. In 1801 Thomas Jefferson and Aaron Burr each received 73

electoral votes, and the House of Representatives had to decide between the two

candidates. After 36 ballots Jefferson became president and Burr vice-president.

As the party system developed, separate candidates were nominated for each

office on the same ticket. THE JUDICIARY This is the body charged with enforcing

laws and, in some states, upholding the constitutional rules. This includes the

Supreme Court and State courts. The Constitution is a written document whose

words cannot be changed except by the process of amendment. But the meaning of

the words is not always interpreted in the same way by members of opposing

political parties or by persons engaged in lawsuits over property or human

rights. Thus it has been necessary for someone to interpret it–that is, to

determine what it means in any controversy. This duty is entrusted to the

Supreme Court. It provides that the Constitution and the laws made "in

pursuance thereof, shall be the supreme law of the land." The Supreme Court

therefore has two kinds of duties: one, to decide cases of law; the other, to

decide what the Constitution means. Sometimes people who have been dissatisfied

with decisions made by the Supreme Court have said that the power to determine

the meaning of the Constitution ought to be exercised by Congress; but since a

law inconsistent with the Constitution cannot be a valid law, it must not be

enforced. Only the court before which the enforcement of such a law comes can

easily make the decision. The Separation of Powers In American states, members

of all three branches are commonly elected directly by voters. The federal

government does not have an elected judiciary; judges are appointed and can be

removed only under most unusual circumstances. The interdependence of the three

branches is secured by what is obverse of the separation of powers, namely the

checks and balances system as mentioned earlier. The separation of powers is

important in a political system. Montesquieu truly believed this, he says when

legislative power is united with executive power in a single person or a single

body of magistracy, there is no liberty, because one can fear that the same

monarch or senate that makes tyrannical laws will execute them tyrannically. Nor

is there liberty if the power of judging is not separate from legislative power

and from executive power. If it were joined to legislative power, the power over

the life and liberty of the citizens would be arbitrary, for the judge would be

the legislator. If it were joined to the executive power, the judge could have

the force of an oppressor. The prime concern of Montesquieu was to avoid the

access of political power, which might occur if too much power was concentrated

into the hands of one area of government. But the separation of power in the

United States is incomplete. Here are a few examples of how the separation of