There are compound words that lack motivation altogether, i.e. the native speaker does not see any obvious connection between the meaning of their structure and the individual meanings of the stems and consequently cannot deduce the lexical meaning of the word. Compound words like eye-wash –‘something said or done to deceive a person’, fiddlesticks - 'nonsense rubbish', wall-flower—'a woman who remains. by the wall as a spectator at a dance, because not chosen as a partner', eye-servant—'a servant who attends faithfully to his duty only when watched’, night-cap—'a drink taken before going to bed at night', dog-eared—'having the corners of the leaves turned down' all lack motivation and their lexical meanings cannot be deduced from the meanings of their components and the meaning of their structure. Lack of motivation in compound words may be often connected with the transferred usage of the denotational meanings of the components or of the whole word as in slow-coach—'a person who acts slowly', sweet-tooth—'one who likes sweet food and drink', wall-flower; the words consequently acquire a new co notational meaning not proper to either of their components. Lack of motivation is of ten due to the specialized and unexpected semantic relations embedded in the compound word as in, e.g., eye-servant, dog-days—'the hottest part of July and August’.
Sometimes the motivated and non-motivated meanings of the same word are felt as two homonymous words, e.g. night-cap 1) a cap worn in bed at night and 2) a drink taken before going to bed at night; eye-wash 1) a liquid for washing the eyes and 2) something said or done to deceive a person; eye-opener 1) enlightening or surprising circumstance and 2) a drink of liquor.
Semantic Classifications
Semantically compound words may be classified (1) according to the degree of motivation, and (2) according to the structural meaning of various distributional formulas described through the interrelation of the components.
1) According to the degree of motivation compound words are subdivided into (a) motivated or non-idiomatic, i.e. words marked either by complete or partial motivation which makes the meaning of the word transparent; (b) non-motivated or idiomatic, i.e. "words the lexical meanings of which cannot be inferred from the individual meanings of their components and the meaning of the distributional formula they are built after.
2) According to the structural meaning or the type of semantic relations between the components compound words may be classified into various groups as words based on the relations of: (a) agent and action, e.g. sunrise, earthquake, (b) object and action, e.g. warship, handshake, (c) the part and the whole, e.g. plum-tree, shirt-collar, eye-ball, etc., (d) the place end the action, or the doer, e.g. street-fighting, grass-hopper, garden-party, (e) the time and the action. e.g. day-flight, night-school, winter-sport, etc., (f) purpose, e.g. table-cloth, driving-suit, bird-cage, etc.
Chapter III Classification of Compounds
2.3 Types of Compounds according types of speech
Compound words may be classified
a) from the functional point of view;
b) from the point of view of the way the components of the compound are linked together and
c) from the point of view of different ways of composition.
a) Functionally compounds are viewed as words belonging to different parts of speech. The bulk of Modern English compound belong to nouns and adjectives: e.g. arm – chair, baby – sitter, boiling – point, knee – high, rain – driven, adverbs and connectives are represented by an insignificant number of words, e.g. indoors, within, outside and we may say that composition on the whole is not productive in adverbs and in connectives. It is of interest to note that composition in verbs in Modern English is not productive either. Verbs that are morphemically compound, such as to (goose flesh, (to) weekend; prove to be words of second derivation on the word – formation level.
b) from the point of view of the means by which the components are joined together compound words may be classified into: 1) words formed by mere placing one constituent after another in a definite order, e.g.: door – handle, rain – driven. This means of linking the components is typical of the greater part of Modern English compounds in all parts of speech.
2) compound words whose components are joined together with a linking element, as in speedometer Fro – Asian; compounds of this type are found both in nouns and in adjectives but present a small group of words considerable restricted by the nature of their components, The components of compound words of this type are mostly joined with the help of the linking vowel [ou] and occasionally the vowel. In both cases the first component often contains a bound root. E.g. Fro – Asian, Sino – Japanese, Anglo Saxon, tragicomic other examples of compound words of this type are electro – dynamic, handicraft, handiwork. This group is generally limited to the names of nationalities and scientific terms. The components of compound nouns may also be joined with the help of the linking consonant [slz] e.g. sportsman, tradesman, saleswoman, bridesmaid, statesman, landsman and etc. This is also a very small group of words restricted by the second component, which is, as a rule, one of the three stems man - , woman - , people - , and the commonest of them being man.
c) Compounds are also classified according to different ways of compounding. There are two ways of composition and accordingly we distinguish two types of compounds: those formed exclusively after a composition pattern, the so called compounds and those formed by a simultaneous operation of two types of word – formation: composition and derivation, the so – called derivational compounds:
Compound words proper are formed by joining together stems of words already available in the language, with or without the help of special linking elements such as: door – step, age – long, baby – sitter, looking – glass, they constitute the bulk of English compounds in all parts of speech and include both productive and non – productive patterns.
In Uzbek the relationship between the components of compound words are different: They show:
1. Comparison: карнайгул, отқулоқ туяқуш, шерюрак, қўйкўз.
2. Relevance, purposed for something: гултувак (vase for flower), молқўра, оловкурак, токқайчи,қийматахта. In English washing – machine, blood – vessel (a tube through which bloods flows in the body).
3. Connection to some places: сувилон (a snake which lives in water), тоғолча, чўлялпиз, қўқонарава like in English zookeeper, postman, house keeper, head – dress, ear – ring. In German Hausfrau, Wesserballspiel, Unterseeboot.
4. The mark of something: аччиқтош, олақарға, шўрданак, қизилиштон, Қизилтепа. In English long – legged, bluebell, slow – coach. Here are some examples of German: Dampfheizung, Arbeitkleidung.
5. Relationship to quantity: бешбармоқ, мингоёқ, қирқоғайни, Бешариқ. This rule is also relevant to English compounds such as: three – cornered, fifteen – fold, six – fold, five – sided polygon. In German there are examples of this kind: Funfjahreplan.
Uzbek compound words are classified:
a) from the point of view of the way the components of the compound are linked together: хомкалла, кўксултон, искабтопар.
b) from the point of view of agreeing:
тўйбоши, китобсевар, дунёқараш.
с) from the point of view ofrelationship between subject and predicate: first elements of such kind compound will be predicate: гўшткуйди, келинтушди.
There are 6 types of compound words in Uzbek:
1. Compound nouns 4. Compound pronouns
2. Compound adjectives 5. Compound adverbs
3. Compound verbs 6. Compound number
Most frequently spread English compound words are:
1. Compound nouns
2. Compound adjectives
3. Compound adverbs
4. Compound verbs
German compound words are also divided into 4:
1. Compound nouns
2. Compound adjectives
3. Compound verbs
4. Compound numbers
a) Compound Nouns
2.3.1 Compound Nouns
Most English compound nouns are noun phrases that include a noun modified by adjectives or attribute nouns. Due to the English tendency towards conversion, the two classes are not always easily distinguished. Most English compound nouns that consist of more than two words can be constructed recursively by combining two words at a time. The compound science fiction writer, for example, can be constructed by combining the resulting compound with writer. Some compounds, such as salt and pepper or mother – of pearl, can be constructed in this way, however.
In general, the meaning of a compound is a specialization of the meaning of its head. The modifier limits the meaning of the head. This is most obvious in descriptive compounds, also known as Karmad haraya compounds, in which the modifier is used in an attributive or appositional manner. A blackboard is a particular kind of board which is generally black, for instance.
In determinative compounds, however, the relationship is not attributive. For example, a foot stool is not a particular type of stool that is like a foot. Rather, it is a stool for one's foot or feet. (It can be used for sitting on but that is not its primary purpose). In a similar manner, the office manager is the manager of an office, an armchair is a chair with arms, and a raincoat is a coat against the rain. These relationships, which are expressed by prepositions in English, would be expressed by grammatical case in other languages. Compounds of this type are also known as tatpurusha compounds.
But of the above types of compounds are called endo centric compounds because the semantic head is contained within the compound itself a blackboard is a type of board, for example, and a footstool is a type of stool.
However, in another common type of compound, the exocentric or ba huvrihi compound, the semantic head is not explicitly expressed. a red head, for example, is not a kind of head, but is a person with a red head, but a person with a head that is as hard and unreceptive as a block (i.e. stupid). And, outside of veterinary surgery, a lion – heart is not a type of heart, but a person with a heart like a lion (in its bravery, courage, fearlessness).
Exocentric compounds occur more often in adjectives than nouns. A barefoot girl, for example, is not a girl that is a bare foot, but a girl with a bare foot. Similarly, a V – 8 car is a car with a V – 8 engine rather than a car that is a V – 8, and a twenty – five – dollar car is a car with a worth of $ 25, not a car that is $ 25. The compounds shown here are bare, but more commonly, a suffixal morpheme is a added, esp. – ed. Hence, a two – legged person is a person with two legs and this is exocentric.
On the other hand, endocentric adjectives are also frequently formed, using the suffixal morphemes: - ing or -er/or. A car – carrier is a clear endocentric determinative compound: it is a thing that is a carrier of cars. The related adjective, car – carrying, is also endocentric: it refers to an object which is a carrying – thing.
These types account for most compound nouns, but there are other, rarer types as well. Coordinative, copulative or dvandva compounds combine elements with a similar meaning, and the compound meaning may be a generalization instead of specialization. Bosnia – Herzegovina, for example, is the combined area of Bosnia and Herzegovina, but a fighter – bomber is an aircraft that is both a fighter and a bomber. Iterative or amredita compounds repeat a single element, to express repetition or as an emphasis. Day – by – day and go –go – go are examples of this type of compound, which has more than one head.
Analyzability may be further limited by cranberry morphemes and semantic changes. For instance, the word butterfly, commonly thought top be a metathesis for flutter by, which the bugs do, is actually based on an old bubbe – maise that butterflies are petite witches that steal butter from window sills. Cranberry is a part translation from Low German, which is why we cannot recognize the element cran (from the Low German kraan or kroon, "crane"). The ladybird or ladybug was named after the Christian expression "our Lady, the Virgin Mary".
In the case of verb + noun compounds, the noun may be either the subject or the object of the verb. In playboy, for example, the noun is the subject of the verb (the boy plays), whereas it is the object in call girl (someone calls the girl).
A black board is any board that is black, and equal prosodic stress can be found on both elements (or, according to psycholinguist Steven Pinker, the second one is accented more heavily.) A blackboard, compound, may have started out as any other black board, but now is a thing that is constructed in a particular way, of a particular material and serves a particular purpose; the word is clearly accented on the first syllable.
Sound patterns, such as stresses placed on particular syllables, may indicate whether the word group is a compound or whether it is an adjective - + - noun phrase. A compound usually has a falling intonation: "blackboard", the "White House", as opposed to the phrases "black board". (Note that this rule does not apply in all contexts. For example, the stress pattern "white house" would be expected for the compound, which happens to be a proper name, but it is also found in the emphatic negation "No, not the black house; the white house!").
Uzbek compound nouns.
Uzbek compound nouns are formed in the following ways:
1. Noun and noun: отқулоқ, қўларра
2. Adjective + noun: кўксултон, хомток
3. Noun + adjectivesective: гулбеор, ошкўк
4. Number + noun: мингоёқ, қирқоғайни, учбурчак
5. Noun + verb ўринбосар, бешиктерватар
6. Verb + verb искабтопар, олиб сотар
Following compoundwords are written without hyphen:
1) The nouns with one stress: гулкўрпа, ошқозон, ўқилон, тутмайиз.
2) Nouns + aр suffix: отбоқар, изқувар
3) Geographical places: Сирдарё, Оқтепа
German Compound nouns are formed in these ways:
1. Noun + noun: Infinitivform
2. Verb + noun: Leitglied
3. Noun + adjective: Kleinkind, Reinmetall, Hochstufe
4. Number + noun: Erststellung, Drittdroße, Tausendfuss
5. Pronoun + noun: Ichton, Erform, Ichbewußtsein
6. Adverb + noun: Spätstellung
7. Präposition + noun: Mitschüler, Zwischenglied, Abart.
German Noun + verb nouns may express different relationships:
1. Object of action: Kindererziehung, Blaubersammlung
2. Subject of action: Mutterliebe
3. Material: Brotteig
4. Time: Sonntagsanzug
5. Place: Dorfteich, Waldrande
6. Purpose: Brotmesser, Roman Schreiber
2.3.2 Compound Adjectives
English compound adjectives are constructed in a very similar way to the compound noun. Black board jungle, gunmetal sheen and green monkey disease are only a few examples.
There are some similarities in forming English and German compound nouns: The components of some compound nouns may be joined with the help of linking consonant: English compound nouns statesman, sportsman nounsstatesman, and sportsman are joined with the consonant "s".
German compound nouns are joined:
· with the help of linking element – "s" or "es"
die Arbeit + s + der Plan = der Arbeitsplan
das Land + es + die Grenze = die Landesgrenze
· with the help of " - in" or " - en".
der Student + en + die Versammlung = die Studentenversammlung
· with the help of linking element "e"
halt(en) + e + das Signal = das Haltesignal.
· without a' linking element:
der Tausch + der Wert = der Tauschwert.
But in Uzbek all compound nouns are joined together without any linking element.
A compound adjective is a modifier of a noun. It consists of two or more morphemes of which the left – hand component limits or changes the modification of the right – hand one, as in "the dark – green dress": dark limits the green that modifies dress.
Solid compound adjectives
There are some well – established permanent compound adjectives that have become solid over a longer period, especially in American usage: earsplitting, eye catching. However, in British usage these, apart from downtown, are more likely written with a hyphen: ear – splitting.