Metonymy is based on different relations of contiguity.
1) a leading significant feature of a person can be used instead of its possessor:Whois the moustache ?-(who is the man?). Olive uniforms (young men); cotton prints (women ) .’’Tantanali majlis zalida “a’lo “, “yaxshi” qator o’tirdi.
2) a symbol can be used for an object : Then I think of taking silk ( to become a lawyer). Nicolay zamonida ostonam tuyoq ko’rmagan .
3) The name of the place can be used for somebody or something connected with it; It was too late for the river (a picnic on the riverside ) .Majlisga butun qishloq keldi. Auditoriya kuldi.
4) A concrete noun may stand for an abstract one: My mother’s voice had the true.
5) An abstract notion may stand for a concrete one: Subservience sprang round the counter (weak and mild people were standing round the counter).
6) An abject may denote an action; When I awakened old sleepy Mary was up and gone … and coffee and bacon were a foot (the break fast was ready).
Certainly the types of metonymy are not limited. There may appear new types of relations for the origin of metonymy. A metonymy differs from a metaphor by the fact that a metaphor may be periphrased into a simile by the help of such words as: as if, so as, like etc. With metonymy you cannot do so.
The sources where images for metonymy are borrowed are quite different: features of a person, an object, facial appearance, names of writers and poets, names of their books, name of some instruments, etc.
The expressiveness of metonymy may be different. Metonymy used in emotive prose is often called contextual and in this case is considered to be genuine and unexpected.
Eg: The brown suit gaped at her. The blue suit grinned, might even have winked. But the big nose in the gray suit stared-and he had small angry eyes and even did not smile (J. Preistley). Qo`shiq kuylar qizaloq
Tinglar uni dala, bog`
Prof Galperin states that in order to decipher the true meaning of a genuine metonymy a broader context is necessary ( not the same with a metaphor). Though for trite metonymy the case is not the same. We can see this from the following examples: fifty sails (instead of fifty ships), smiling year (for spring). In the morning old Hitler-face questioned me again (S. Sillitoe). I get my living by the sweat of my brow (with difficulty); to earn one’s bread lone`s means of living); to live by the pen (by writing); to keep one’s mouth shut (be silent).
Synecdoche is the case when the part of an object is called instead of the whole object. It has given rise to many phraseological units under one’s roof (in one’s house); not to lift a foot (do not help, when help is needed);
Usually metonymy is expressed by nouns or substantivized numerals or attributive constructions; she was a pale and fresh a eighteen.
The functions of metonymy are different. The general function of metonymy is building up imagery and it mainly deals with generalization of concrete objects. Hence nouns in metonymy are mostly used with the definite article, or without it at all (definite and zero articles have a generalizing function).
Besides, metonymy have a characterizing function when it is used to make then character’s description significant or rather insignificant (by mentioning only his hat and collar. It ahs the function of introducing a new person into the book.
Irony is based on the realization of two logical meanings (dictionary and contextual). Which stand in opposition? It is the clash of two diametrically opposite meanings. Eg: The man they had got now was a jolly, light-hearted, thick-headed sort of a chap, with about as much sensitiveness in him. (J.K.)
Mana shu uchun ko`pchilik Yaponlar bunday “yoqimly”taasurotlaridan ko`raishlash ming marta afzal deydilar.
In this utterance two words: “thick-headed” means a stupid, dull person and “sensitiveness” means of sensitive person who is easily hurt in the spirit easily offended. And “yoqimli” means “yoqimsiz”.
Sometimes irony is mixed up with sarcasm. Sarcasm is a bitter or wounding remark, taunt, especially ironically worded. Usually socially or politically aimed irony is also called sarcasm: once upon a time in a sceptered island ruled a Great white Queen and enchantress…
Beloved by her subjects, she ruled with a stern, but loving hand, disallowing anything that was not good for them…
In fact the majority of people did not have to work at all, only the rich, were punished, left with the worries that money brings.
In this text the author gives a sarcastic description of the former prime minister of Great Britain-M. Thatcher. Sarcasm appears due to the use of contradictory notions: a stern, but loving hand; a Queen and enchantress disallow anything that was not good for them, only rich people were left with worries etc. Sarcasm is kept whole due to the use of such devices as periphrasis: “a sceptered island” instead of Great Britain; litotes- disallowing anything that was not good for them; epithets-a sceptered island, a stern and loving hand.
Irony largely depends on the environment. We ought to distinguish between irony and humour. Humour causes laughter. But the function of irony is not to produce a humorous effect only. In some cases it can express a feeling of irritation, displeasure, pity or regret. Richard Attick says: “The effect of irony lies in the striking disparity between what is said and was meant “Eg: Stoney smiled the sweet smile of an alligator. “Xali uyga kelsang, boshingni silab, qo`yaman”. “Imtixonga juda “yaxshi” tayorlanib kelibsiz, qizim, baxongiz “ikki”-dedi o`qituvchi.
To mark out ironically used words in written language such graphic means as inverted commas and italicized words are used. Sometimes it is only the situation that can prompt the use of irony. In oral speech the main role in recognition of irony belongs to intonation and situation. The following phrase “There is gratitude for you!” (Thanks for you) may be said ironically, depending on the situation and the intonation with which you use it.
In the Uzbek language irony can be expressed by morphological form of plurality for example.
Saboxat xonaga sinchkov ko`z ugurtirarkan, nimadandir xursand bo`lganday og`zini tanobi qochib, ixtexzo bilaniljayardi.
-Nega aqalli qizlaringizniyo`qlab bormaysiz, desam turishlaringiz shoxona ekanda,-dedi nixoyatkesatiq bilan.
2.5 Stylistic Devices Based on the Interaction of Logical and Emotive Meaning
The emotive meaning of a word can be clearly understood if we introduce the notion of neutral meaning. It denotes the unemotional communication: Stylistic of emotional word and constructions are easily sensed when they are set against the non emotional words and constructions.
Interjections. Usually these words express our feeling such as regret, despair, sorrow, woe, surprise, astonishment etc. In the previous parts we have spoken about interjections which were defined as expressive means of the language. Emotionally coloured features of interjections after conscious and intentional intensification of their structural and semantic properties move up to a generalized status and become a stylistic device.
Interjections may be divided into simple and derivative.
Simple interjections: Oh! Ah! Bah! Pooh! Gosh! Hush! Alas! Voy! Eh! Oh! Be! Ie! Iy! Voey! E-ha! xa! Voy-bo`y! Xaya! I-i! Yop! Ey! Xax! Obbo!
Derivative interjections:Heavens! Good gracious!
Dear me! Good! By the lord! God knows! Bless me! Hum bug! Yopiray! Tavba! Alvido! Yopirim! Parvardigor! Barakalla!, “Xe, mayli-da, uka, buyam endi qirq yilda bir eshak o`yin deganday gap-da. Voy, Xushomadgo`y-ey!” Voy, otasi tushgur-ey, dedi kula-kula Musa, -men sizni so`fi, bunday ishlarga r`tabor qilmaydi deb yursam, sizda gap ko`p ekan. Voy, otasi tushkur-ey!
There are a number of adjectives and adverbs which may be classified as interjections. Among them are the following: terrible, awful, great, wonderful, splendid. When they are used as interjections they are not used in their logical dictionary meanings. In most cases they are used in their emotive meanings as intensifiers.
The Epithet
From the strongest means of displaying the 'writer's or speaker's emotional attitude to his communication, we now pass to a weaker but still forceful means— the epithet. The epithet is subtle and delicate in character. It is not so direct as the interjection. Some people even consider that it can create an atmosphere of objective evaluation, whereas it actually conveys the subjective attitude of the writer, showing that he is partial in one way or another.
The epithet is a stylistic device based on the interplay of emotive and logical meaning in an attributive word, phrase or even sentence used to characterize an object and pointing out to the reader, and frequently imposing on him, some of the properties or features of the object with the aim of giving an individual perception and evaluation of these features or properties. The epithet is markedly subjective and evaluative. The logical attribute is purely objective, non-evaluating. It is descriptive and indicates an inherent or prominent feature of the thing or phenomenon in question.
Thus, in 'green meadows', 'white snow', 'round table', 'blue skies', 'pale complexion', 'lofty mountains' and the like, the adjectives are more logical attributes than epithets. They indicate those qualities of the objects which may be regarded as generally recognized. But in 'wild wind', 'loud ocean', 'remorseless dash of billows', 'formidable waves', "heart-burning smile', the adjectives do not point to inherent qualities of the objects described. They are subjectively evaluative.
The epithet makes a strong impact on the reader, so much so, that he unwittingly begins to see and evaluate things as the writer wants him to. Indeed, in such word-combinations as 'destructive charms', 'glorious sight', 'encouraging smile', the interrelation between logical and emotive meanings may be said to manifest itself in different degrees. The word destructive has retained its logical meaning to a considerable extent, but at the same time an experienced reader cannot help perceiving the emotive meaning of the word which in this combination will signify 'conquering, irresistible, dangerous'. The logical meaning °f the word glorious in combination with the word sight has almost entirely faded out. Glorious is already fixed in dictionaries as a word having an emotive meaning alongside its primary, logical meaning. As to the word encouraging (in the combination 'encouraging smile') it is half epithet and half logical attribute. In fact, it is sometimes difficult to draw a clear line of demarcation between epithet and logical attribute. In some passages the logical attribute becomes so strongly enveloped in the emotional aspect of the utterance that it begins to radiate emotiveness, though by nature it is logically descriptive. Take, for example, the adjectives green, white, blue, lofty (but somehow not round} in the combinations given above. In a suitable context they may all have a definite emotional impact on the reader. This is prob-ably explained by the fact that the quality most characteristic of the given object is attached to it, thus strengthening the quality. Epithets may be classified from different standpoints: semantic and structural. "Semantically! y, epithets may be divided into two groups: those associated with the noun following and those an associated with it.
Associated epithets are those which point to a feature which is essential to the objects they describe: the idea expressed in the epithet is to a certain extent inherent in the concept of the object. The associated epithet immediately refers the mind to the concept in question due to some actual quality of the object it is attached to, for instance, 'dark forest’, 'dreary midnight', 'careful attention', 'unwearying research', 'in-defatigable assiduity', 'fantastic terrors', etc.
Unassociated epithets are attributes used to characterize the object by adding a feature not inherent in it, i.e. a feature which may be so unexpected as to strike the reader by its novelty, as, for instance, 'heartburning smile', 'bootless cries', 'sullen earth', 'voiceless, sands', etc. The adjectives here do not indicate any property inherent in the objects in question. They impose, as it were, a property on them which is fitting only in the given circumstances. It may seem strange, unusual, or even accidental.
In any combination of words it is very important to observe to what degree the components of the combination are linked. When they are so closely linked that the component parts become inseparable, we note that we are dealing with a set expression. When the link between the component parts is comparatively close, we say there is a stable word-combination, and when we can substitute any word of the same grammatical category for the one given, we note what is called a free combination of words.
With regard to epithets, this division becomes of paramount importance, inasmuch as the epithet is a powerful means for making the desired impact on the reader, and therefore its ties with the noun are generally contextual. However, there are combinations in which the ties between the attribute and the noun defined are very close, and the whole combination is viewed as a linguistic whole. Combinations of this type appear as a result of the frequent use of certain definite epithets with definite nouns. They become stable word-combinations. Examples are: 'bright face', valuable connections' 'sweet smile', 'unearthly beauty', 'pitch darkness', 'thirsty deserts', 'deep feeling', 'classic example', 'powerful influence', sweet perfume' and the like. The predictability of such epithets is very great.
The function of epithets of this kind remains basically the same: 'to show the evaluating, subjective attitude of the writer towards the thing described. But for this purpose the author does not create his own, new, unexpected epithets; he uses ones that have become traditional, and may be termed "language epithets" as they belong to the language-as-a-system. Thus epithets may be divided into language epithets and speech epithets. Examples of speech epithets are: 'slavish knees', 'sleepless bay.'
The process of strengthening the connection between the epithet and the noun may sometimes go so far as to build a specific unit which does not lose its poetic flavor. Such epithets are called fixed and are mostly used in ballads and folk songs. Here are some examples of fixed epithets: 'true love', 'dark forest', 'sweet Sir', 'green wood', 'good ship', 'brave cavaliers'.
The epithet is a SD which is built on the interplay of two meanings of words: emotive and logical. It denotes a permanent or temporary quality of a person, thing, idea, phenomenon and characterizes it from the point of view of subjective perception: gooseberry eyes, cat-like eyes, proud boxing gloves, iron hate, waiting silence, silver hair, rose berry blond hair.
Qorli tog`lar orqasidan
Atlas sochin tarab quyosh
Gox mo`ralab o`ynashar quyosh
Xanda sochar dudog`idan.
(G`ayratiy)
The degree of individual subjective evaluation is clearly seen if we compare these word combinations with the traditional logical founded word combinations: black, green, small, large, eyes, siyrak, quyuq, to`zg`igan, kalta, o`rilgan jilvar, oq, sariq soch.
A comparison of such word combinations as “iron gate” and “iron will”, “temir darvoza” and “temir iroda”. In the first case “iron” is logical attribute denoting a special type of gates, whereas in “iron will” “temir iroda”- iron serves as an epithet and denotes an “unyielding will”. The same refers to “green meadow” “green old age”, “green thoughts”, Steel weapon, steel will,ham tarvuz ,xom yigit, polat sim, polat qala ets.
An erithet has always an emotional meaning or connotation. This meaning may be combined with denotatinal meaning or it may exist independently.
After the long usage epithets form fixed word combinations which established in the language and enter the group of set expressions; true-love, merry mind, lagy gay, sweet smile, heated discussions, ogir yigit, engiltak juvon, ogir yuk, qora quzgun.
Individual epithets depend on the authors stile and his artistic purpose. Eg; He looked shy and embarrassed and wild hope came to me (G. Green) Oyni kutgan oqshomgi kokda beshik-beshik bulut yurardi. (Oybek)
Semantic criterion gives us the right to distinguish associated and unassociated epithets. Associated epithets single out a feature which is essentially typical, inherent in the concept of the object they describe; the red sunset, the towering woods, dark clouds, pokiza yoshlik, ola chipor koylak, ochilgan guncha. Unassociated epithets characterize the object through a feature which is not typical and alien for this object. Such association immediately brings surprising effect, attracts the readers attention. Eg; elegant books, smiling year, dim roar, the wild moon, osmon upar uylar, shaftoli gul kuylak, sargaygan dunyo, ichakuuzdi latifalar. These adjectives indicate properties which are associated with other notions; elegant manners, smiling child, dim light, qiziq latifalar.