The comparative typology of English, Russian and Uzbek languages (стр. 3 из 5)

d. [] c] is a diphthong that has not survived in present-day RP. It used to render the vowel of words like floor, door, pore, score, snore, coarse, hoarse, oar, course now pronounced []:]. It still does that in various dialects of English, though the general tendency seems to be to monophthong such diphthongs. This has been the fate of [5 c] as well, which in many variants of English is pronounced []:] in words like poor, sure etc.

B. The diphthongs to [y]: [jy], [ey]

a. [ay] is a falling, wide, closing diphthong. It is the diphthong that actually implies the amplest articulator movement of the speech organs that shift from the position of an open vowel which is fairly central (the position varies between cardinal vowels 5 and 4) to a front, close, lax vowel (not far from the position of cardinal vowel 1. Historically, the vowel originates in [i:], that subsequently lowered to [ey], than centered and lowered again to finally become [ay]. The diphthong is distributed in all three basic positions: isle [aisl]; bite [bayt], cry [kray]. It can be spelt i as in ice, dime, loci, or y a in dyke, fly, or ie as in die, lie, pie, or in inflected forms: spies, spied; ye as in dye, ye; ei as in height, either, neither, and, exceptionally uy in buy, guy. Note also the pronunciation of ay(e) [ay], eye [ay] and aisle is y falling, wide, closing diphthong. It starts from a back, mid vowel, situated between cardinal vowels 6 an 7 and ends in a front, close, lax vowel, somewhere in the vicinity of cardinal vowel 1. Like the preceding diphthong, it also involves an ample articulator movement from a back vowel to the front part of the imaginary vowel chart. It is distributed in all three basic positions: ointment, boil, toy. It can be spelt either oi: oil, toil or oy: oyster, Boyle, is SL falling, narrow, closing diphthong. It starts with a front, mid vowel – between cardinal vowels [e] and [e] – and glides to a higher vowel value, closing. Often the second element is very short, sometimes even dropped, the diphthong being reduced to a long vowel monophthong [e:]. In Cockney the diphthong starts with a lower and central vowel, being pronounced. The diphthong is distributed in all three basic positions: eight; plate, play. It can be spelt a: ace, lace; ai: aid, maid; ay: aye, clay; ei: eight, reign, ey: they, grey, ea: break, steak. Exceptionally, there are spellings like goal [goal], bass [bess], gauge [geuge], halfpenny [helfpeni]. The diphthong also occurs in a small number of French loan words ending in et or 6: ballet, bouquet, chalet, cafe, fiancé, attaché, resume. The diphthong starts with a central mid vowel and glides to a back close one. It is a falling, narrow, closing diphthong. It is distributed in all three basic positions: old, gold, flow. It has various spellings: o: old, sold, wo; oa: oak, roast, oe: toe, ow: own, known, row; ou: poultry, dough; eau: beau, bureau, and, exceptionally, au: gauche; oo: brooch; ew: sew; oh: oh. b. [a] is a falling, wide, closing diphthong. It starts as an open, fairly front vowel (in the vicinity of cardinal vowel 4) and glides towards. It is distributed in all three basic positions: ouch, loud, cougar. It can be spelt by ou: oust, doubt, plough, or ow: owl, howl, how and, exceptionally eo in MacLeod.

English Diphthongs

The lax and tense vowels we have looked at so far are monophthongs, sometimes called pure vowels. This is because the tongue and lips are relatively stationary while these vowels are being pronounced – the vowels do not move around in the vowel chart. Diphthongs, on the other hand, move through the chart as they are pronounced: they start at one vowel-position, and move towards another. The word diphthong is from Greek: it means «two vowels», and we write them as two vowels.

Diphthongs are tense vowels; they can be unchecked, and are subject to clipping like the «pure» tense vowels – they can be long or short.

The centering diphthongs occur only in the nonrhotic accents. In the rhotic accents, words such as NEAR SQUARE and CURE are pronounced with a single vowel (monophthong) followed by r.

This is by far the rarest vowel in RP (with a frequency of 0.06% – see Vowel Frequencies) – and is getting rapidly rarer, since words in the CURE set are moving over to THOUGHT,

. This happened decades ago in mainstream RP with words such as 'sure' and 'poor', , , and in newer RP and Estuary English all of the old CURE set have gone over to THOUGHT.

Difference between SQUARE and NEAR

You'll hear different pronunciations of these two vowels (for instance, in some accents the

disappears and the remaining vowel lengthens) but most accents of English keep them clearly distinguished. On the other hand speakers of English as a foreign language sometimes confuse these vowels, and Icelanders often do.

The Diphthongs

There are 9 diphthongs in English. [əi, ei, ou, au, iə, uə, ci, eə, əi]

The English diphthongs are stable combination, no syllable division is possible in them. They may form phonological opposition either with monophtongs, diphthongized vowels or with each other.

E.g. bed – bid–bade–beard–bowed; letter – latter – later – litter [•33] is not an English phoneme, but a version of the vowel [c ۸]. The first element of the diphthongs, which is called the nucleus, is pronounced distinctly arid clearly. The second element is glide. There are no diphthongs in Uzbek. According to the phonological approach combination of «vowel -+ – j» and vice versa, such as the Uzbek u-u, u–y, u – o, u-+ a, are considered to be these sequences of a vowel and consonant [y+c] They are not stable combinations but sometimes may be destroyed by the syllable division: cуй-унчи, тий-улиш.

The first element of the diphthongs [əi, ai, au, əi, uə], to a certain degree acoustically resemble the Uzbek vowels [əi u, a] and [y]. Therefore it is not difficult to leach the Uzbeks to pronounce the nucleus of these diphthongs into [j] which is the most usual mistake in the pronunciation of the Uzbeks. There are also two combinations often used which consists of three vowels in English. There are: [əi, auα] them may be regarded as diphthongs and tile third consists of the vowel. Usually they are called trip tongs. But there is no trip tongs in Uzbek.

1.4 Consonants

Consonants are speech sounds in the pronunciation of which noise is heard. The degrees of noise are different There are consonants’ in the production of which only noise is heard, there are consonants in the production of which noise and voice are heard and there are consonants in the production of which voice prevails over noise, but the fact is that noise in different degrees and forms is always present, Consonants do not give periodic voice waves.

The consonants should be classified on the following 3

Principles;

1. The manner of production

2. The active organs employed in the production

3. The place of production

The last division is very important, due to it the parricidal difference in the formation of consonants in English and of consonants in Uzbek may be clearly shown. The system of English consonants consists of 24 consonants. They are: [p, t, k, b, d, g, mf n, 1, n, f, v, s, z, w, j, ð, ə, s, з, ts, w, j] and the problematic phoneme [ju].

The system of Uzbek consonant phonemes consists of 25 phonemes. Theyare: [п, т, к, б, д, г, м, н, л, нг, в, р, с, й, ш, з, х, ҳ, ф, р, ж, ч, с, қ, ғ]

Some of the English consonants like [ð, ə] have no counterparts ill Uzbek. There are also seine Uzbek consonants which do not exist in the system of the English consonant phonemes. They: are [x, тc,].

Many consonants have their counterparts in the languages compared, but they differ inn their articulation. The difference in the articulation and acoustics» of English arid Uzbek consonants phonemes may be summed up as follows:

1. The English [f, v] are labio – dental fricatives, whereas the Uzbek [4>, B] are bilabial fricatives. They have labio–dental versions in dialects. So Uzbek [B] pronounced in the same way as the English [в], especially in the – middle of words. Pg. қовун, совун, шавла, далат, шакат, қувват. Uzbek students often substitute [w] for [v]: wine – vine.

2. [t, d, n, s, z] also [1] are alveolar in English. The corresponding consonants in Uzbek are dentals. The English [t, d, n] require apical articulation, while their Uzbek counter – parts are dorsal (dental). The dorsal articulation does riot exists in English.

3. The English [r] is a post – alveolar fricative, while the Uzbek [p] is a post–alveolar rolled (thrilled) consonant.

4. The English [1] phoneme consists of the main member; the clear alveolar [1], used before the vowels a ad semi – vowel and its positional, also dialectal, versions dark [1] which besides, being alveolar is also velar. The latter is used before'' consonants and in word final position. The Uzbek [A] is dental consonants.

5. The English [h] is pharyngeal. Uzbek has: a) the velar fricative [x], b) the pharyngeal fricative [х]. The replacement of [h] by •[x] is a phonemic mistake. The English [h] is weak and there is loss friction than in the production of the Uzbek [x].

6. The English affricates [tS, dз] and fricatives [S, з] are polato–alveolar, while Uzbek [ш, ж] are post–alveolar fricatives and [ж] may be palatalized.

7. The English voiceless [p.h, k, s, S, ts] are more energetic

Than the corresponding Uzbek voiceless consonants. In the Uzbek [n, t, k] there is less aspiration than in the corresponding English voiceless plosives. While the English voiced [b, d, g, z, j;] are less energetic than the corresponding Uzbek voiced consonants.

8. We regard the jota combination [ju:] as u separate phoneme in English. It is not a chance combination, it is very often used and there is a letter in the alphabet to denote R In spelling. According to its first element it may be regarded as a consonants phoneme [c+v] may-form phonological opposition

9. The English [j] is a palatal semi–vowel. The Uzbek [й] is a palatal fricative» Gоmp, yet= ет [йт]

10. The English [ðə] are interdentally. The interdentally articulation is unknown in Uzbek. They are extremely difficult for me Uzbek to master.

11. The English sonant [m, 1, n] in word – final position are very sonorous and somewhat prolonged before a pause, especially when they are preceded by a short vowel, whereas the corresponding Uzbek sonant are les& sonorous in Use same position. Comp. Bell, Toni, on; Uzbek: бел, том, он.

12.The English voiced consonants remain voiced in word final position and before voiceless consonants, while the Uzbek voiceless consonants become devoiced in the.-same position. The Uzbek students of English are apt – to make phonologic mistakes: bed–bet, course-cause.

Word is usually characterized as the smallest naming unit consisting of a definite number of sounds and denoting a definite lexical meaning and expressing definite grammatical categories. It usually is a subject–matter of-morphology, which system the form and structure of the word. Iris well known that the neurological system of the language reveals it properties through the! morphemic structure of words. As a part of the grammatical theory morphology faces two set) mental units yogh the language: the morpheme and the word.

Morpheme is known as\he smallest meaningful unit of the language into which a word may be divided. E.g. in the word writ-err-s the root morpheme write expresses the lexical meaning of the word, lexical morpheme – er shows the doer of the action denoted by the root morpheme, and the grammatical suffix-s indicates the number of the doers, more than one person is meant, Similar opinion can be sad regarding the following units of the language, such as Finish – ed, courageous, un-prepared – ness: тугал лан ма ган лик дан дир, бедаволардан.

Being a meaningful segmental component of the word a morpheme is formed by phonemes but unlike word it is elementary, i.e. is indivisible into signaller components. There may be zero morphemes, i.e. the absence of morpheme may indicate a certain lexical or grammatical meaning: Cf: – book-s, hope-hope китоб-китоб-лар, но-умид– In cases of «students come children come, geese come» the morphs – s, en, and [i:] (of goose) are allomorphs of the morpheme of plurality «-лар» In Uzbek.

Like a word a morpheme is two-facet language unit, an association of a certain sound-pattern. But unlike the word a morpheme is not an autonomous body (unit) and can occur in speech only as a constituent part of the word. It cannot be segmented into smaller units without losing constitutive essence.

The morphemes can be divided into root (free0) morphemes and affixal (bound) morphemes (affixes). A form is said to be free if it may stand without changing its meaning; if not it is a bound form, as it always doubt to something else.

E.g: In the words sportive, elegant morphemes sport, elegant may occur alone as utterances, but the forms-ive, – ant, eleg cannot be used alone without the root morphemes.

The morphemes may be classified in two ways: a) from the semantic point of view, and b) from the structural point of view.

Semantically morphemes fall into two classes: the root morphemes and non-root (affixational) morpheme.

The root morphemes is the lexical nucleus of the word and it they usually express mainly the lexical meaning i.e. material part of the meaning of the word, while the affixes morphemes can express both lexical and grammatical meanings, this they can be characterized as lexical affixes (-er) and grammatical suffixes (-s) in «writ-er-s». The lexical suffixes are usually used mainly in word building process to form words (e.g. help-less, black-ness, teach-er, speak-er, нажот-сиз, қора-лик, ўқит-ув-чи, сўз-лов-чи) where grammatical suffixes serve to express the grammatical meaning of the word by changing its form (paradigm) (e.g. speaker) John’ – s, (case ending denoting possession) come a (person, number, tense, aspect, mood, active, voice) 3^rd person singular present simple, indicative mood, active voice. Thus we can say that the grammatical significance of affixes (derivational) morphemes is always combined with their lexical meaning.

e.g. verb-to write‑ёзмоқ

noun – writer – ёзувчи

The derivative morpheme «-er» has a grammatical meaning as it serves to distinguish a-noun from a verb and it has a lexical meaning i.e. the doer of the action. The root of the notional words is classical lexical morphemes.

The affixes (derivational) morphemes include prefixes, suffixes and inflexions (grammatical suffixes). Prefixes and lexical suffixes have word building functions. Together with the root they form the stem of the word. Prefixes precede the root morpheme (im-personal, un-known, re-write), suffixes follow it (e.g: friend-ship, active-ize, readi-ness, дўст-лик, фаоллаш-тир-моқ, тайёр-лик).

Inflexions word-forming suffixes express different morphological categories.

Structurally morphemes fall under three types: a) free morphemes, b) bound morphemes, c) send-bound morphemes.

A free morpheme is the stem of the word, a great many free morphemes are root morphemes. (e.g. London-er, sports-man-ship). A bound morphemes for they are alwaysmake a part of the word. (e.g. – ness, – ship, – dom, – dis, – pre, un-, чи, паз, – дон, бе-, сер, по,) some root morphemes also belong to the class of bound morphemes.