UNION OF ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND
Scotland remained a separate kingdom throughout the Middle Ages, often at war with England. Realising the benefits of closer political and economic union, England and Scotland agreed in 1707 on a single Parliament for Great Britain. Scotland retained its own system of law and church settlement. The Union became strained in the first half of the 18th century, when two Jacobite uprisings attempted to restore the Catholic Stuart dynasty to the throne.
THE GROWTH OF THE EMPIRE
The 17th and 18th centuries saw considerable overseas expansion by Britain. The foundation of the colonies in North America was followed by other major acquisitions, in competition with the French and other European powers. Despite the North American colonies winning the War of Independence between 1775 and 1783, Britain continued to extend its rule through the 19th century over a large part of the world - a process from which the modern Commonwealth eventually emerged.
THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
The Industrial Revolution, which was a key development in shaping the face of modern Britain, took place between about 1760 and 1830. Britain was the first country in the world to industrialise, pioneering many technologies and large-scale production processes. In pursuit of work in the new mills and factories, people concentrated in the industrial centres which developed in particular areas of the country. The cities which rose to prominence as manufacturing and commercial centres, such as Birmingham, Manchester and Sheffield, remain among the principal centres of population today. Transport was revolutionised in this period, with the construction of a wide network of canals in the late 18th century, many of which are still in use today. These were followed in the early 19th century by the advent of the railways, the world's first passenger railway opening between Stockton and Darlington in 1825. Although slums developed in many of the emerging industrial towns, some of the more philanthropic mill and factory owners sought to provide better facilities for their employees. One of these model settlements for industrial workers was Saltaire near Bradford, built by Titus Salt in the late 19th century. As well as the mill and the workers' houses, Salt also built civic facilities such as the church and a school.
THE CENSUS
In 1801 the first census of population in England and Wales was held. There has been a census in Britain every ten years since that date, except in 1941 when war intervened. Census information is used by central and local government to help make financial allocations and plan services.
RELIGIOUS FREEDOM
Freedom of conscience in religious matters was achieved gradually from the 17th century onwards. Laws discriminating against minority religious groups were administered less harshly and then finally repealed. Catholic emancipation in 1829 relieved Catholics in Britain of the legal and civil restrictions accumulated since the time of the English Reformation. Religious freedom for all people in Britain has since become an accepted right.
THE REFORM ACTS
Today people in Britain take for granted the right to vote in national and local elections (see p. 15). However, at one time the vote was confined to a very narrow group of men. The widening of the franchise started with the Reform Acts of 1832 and 1867, continued in 1884, 1918 and 1928, and was completed in 1969 when the minimum voting age was reduced to 18. The Ballot Act of 1872 gave voters the means to keep their vote secret - an arrangement that has stood the test of time so well that even the official specification for the design of the ballot box is virtually identical to that of the late 19th century.
PARTITION OF IRELAND
The formal connection between Great Britain and Ireland dates from the Norman invasion of Ireland in the 12th century. In the late 1550s and early 1600s English and Scottish Protestants migrated to the northern province of Ulster, their religion setting them apart from the other, indigenous Roman Catholic inhabitants of Ireland. In 1801 Ireland was unified with Great Britain, but Irish Nationalists continued to campaign in the 19th and early 20th centuries for some measure of independence. At the same time, the Protestant Unionist majority in the north resisted any moves towards Irish home rale. In 1921 the Anglo-Irish Treaty established the Irish Free State as a self-governing dominion, but Northern Ireland exercised its right to opt out and remain part of the United Kingdom.
Between 1922 and 1972 Northern Ireland was governed by a Parliament responsible for a range of local affairs but, following the upsurge in intercommunal violence in the late 1960s and early 1970s, it has been ruled directly by Westminster since 1972. Successive British Governments have tried to find the basis for returning greater power to Northern Ireland's locally elected representatives, but agreement has proved elusive.
In December 1993 the British and Irish Governments made a declaration stating that any settlement would be based on the principles of democracy and consent, and could only be reached by agreement between parties with a commitment to exclusively peaceful methods. This was 'followed by both the nationalist and loyalist paramilitaries announcing ceasefires in August and October 1994. The British Government has since continued to work to create the right conditions for all-party talks, with the aim of achieving an overall settlement. This has included the publication of the Frameworks for the Future document in February 1995.
EDUCATION AND SOCIAL WELFARE
The 1940s saw educational and social welfare developments, the broad principles of which are maintained today, hi 1944 a new Education Act for England and Wales allowed for a great expansion of education provided by the State (see p. 31). A new Ministry of Education was empowered to develop a national education policy. Also, the school system was divided into two levels, primary and secondary, making secondary education to the age of 15 compulsory.
Hi 1942 the government-sponsored TrJeveridge report' proposed a comprehensive scheme of social insurance covering the whole community, forming the basis of much of the present social security system. Legislation in 1946 provided for the establishment of Britain's National Health Service (NHS), the most comprehensive medical care scheme of its time. The NHS has since provided a full range of mainly free medical services, available to all British residents regardless of their income.
THE END OF EMPIRE
At the death of Queen Victoria in 1901 the British Empire had expanded to almost one-fifth of the world land mass and one-quarter of the world population. However, from that time it decentralised. Self-governing dominions, such as Canada and Australia, were described in 1926 as autonomous members of the oBritish Commonwealth of Nations'. Most other colonies, beginning with India and Pakistan, were granted independence by Britain after 1945, and most of them joined the Commonwealth.
Immigration from former territories in the Caribbean and the South Asian sub-continent was substantial in the 1950s and 1960s, forming the basis of the ethnic minority population in Britain today.
BRITAIN IN EUROPE
At the end of the Second World War in 1945 the economies of most European countries were in ruins. In addition, the then Soviet Union's Communist influence was expanding. In the face of these challenges, the countries of
Western Europe sought to co-operate in their reconstruction and to organise themselves in such a way that wars between them would not recur.
Out of the consequent negotiations emerged what is now termed the European Union - an association of sovereign nations, initially comprising six member states in the 1950s but expanding progressively over the years to the current membership of 15. Britain joined in 1973 and its links with its European Union partners have since become ever more closely integrated, influencing the lives of all its citizens.
DEMOGRAPHIC TRENDS
Britain has a population of about 58 million people, the 17th largest in the world. The great majority, 48.7 million, live in England; Scotland has just over 5 million people, Wales 2.9 million and Northern Ireland about 1.6 million. The population density is well above the
European Union average. England is the most densely populated, with 373 people per sq km, and Scotland the least, with 67 people per sq km. The great majority of people are concentrated in towns and cities, although there has been a trend, especially in the capital London for people to move away from congested urban centres into the suburbs.
In 1994 there were 751,000 live births in Britain, compared with 626,000 deaths. The birth rate is relatively low at 12.9 live births per 1,000 population. This is in part due to a trend towards later marriage and towards postponing births.
The average age of women having children has risen to over 28 years in England and Wales. There is also a greater preference for smaller families than in the past, which has led to a significant decline in the proportion of families with four or more children. In addition, more widespread and effective contraception has made it easier to plan families.
Life expectancy for men in Britain is about 73 years and for women 78 years (compared with 49 years for men and 52 years for women at the start of the century). The general death rate in 1994 was 10.7 per 1,000 of the population. There has been a decline in mortality at most ages, particularly among children, reflecting better nutrition, rising living standards, medical advances and improved health measures, wider education and the smaller size of families.
Deaths caused by circulatory diseases (including heart attacks and strokes) now account for nearly half of all deaths, and mortality from heart disease in England and Wales remains high compared with that of other developed countries. The next largest cause of death is cancer, which is responsible for nearly one-quarter of deaths. The Government has developed a national health strategy for addressing the major causes of premature death and preventable illness among people in Britain.
Britain has one of the highest marriage and divorce rates in the European Union, hi 1993 there were 341,600 marriages in Britain, of which 38.4 per cent were remarriages of one or both parties. Of the population aged 16 or over in England and Wales in 1992, 57 per cent were married, 27 per cent were single, 9 per cent were widowed and 7 per cent were divorced. The average age for first marriages in England and Wales is now about 28.2 for men and 26.2 for women.
Hi 1993 in England and Wales there were about 14 divorces for every 1,000 married couples. The average age of spouses at the time of divorce is now about 39.3 for men and just over 37.6 for women. Divorce rates are lower in Scotland and Northern Ireland.
Hi common with many other Western European countries, there has been an increase in cohabitation (unmarried couples living together) in Britain. About 18 per cent of non-married men and women aged 16-59 in Great Britain were cohabiting in 1992. There is some evidence of a growing number of stable non-married relationships. Roughly half of all births outside marriage (which accounted for 32 per cent of live births in Britain in 1994) are registered by both parents giving a single address as their place of residence.
ELDERLY PEOPLE
One of the most significant changes in the a structure of Britain's population over the last 30 years has been the increasing proportion of people over retirement age (65 for men and 60 for women) - some 11 million today, and their numbers continue to grow. This has important implications for social services provision into the next century.
Most elderly people in Britain live healthy and independent lives. Nearly all want to be part of the community, living in their own homes. Many view their later years as an opportunity to do the things they never previously had the time for, or to take on new interests or challenges. For instance, adult educational and recreational courses run by local authorities throughout Britain are well attended by older people, and some sports, such as bowls, attract many elderly participants.
Yet a lot of older people - perhaps living alone, in poor health or disabled in some way - have important needs, hi addition to the large amount of willing help from relatives, neighbours and friends, practical support for Britain's elderly people is provided by the social services authorities, voluntary organisations and, to a lesser extent, the private sector.
Services for elderly people are designed help them live at home whenever possible. I fact, only about 5 per cent of people aged over 65 in Britain live in institutional accommodation. These services may include advice and help from visiting social workers, assistance with domestic chores and the provision of meals in the home. Day centres and lunch clubs are very popular among older people as they provide, in addition to a hot meal and facilities such as a laundry, an important focal point for social contact They may also offer leisure and educational activities, many of which are run by older people themselves.
Local authorities and voluntary organisations operate special transport services to enable less mobile elderly people to get to day centres or to visit the shoos, the doctor, family or friends. There are concessionary fares for resident pensioners on most bus services, and special discounts are available on coach and rail travel.
Special housing needs for the elderly are met by local authorities, housing associations, voluntary bodies and the private sector. Sheltered housing schemes may consist of groups of flats or small houses where older people can live independently but still have the support of a resident warden. For those people who are too infirm to continue to live independently there are residential homes providing full board, or nursing homes offering 24-hour personal care.
YOUNG PEOPLE
The home is the central focus of most young people's lives in Britain, particularly for those who are still attending school (see p.31). The majority rely upon their home environment as a place of security and upon their parents as the main providers of food, money and other necessary amenities for life - as well as general advice. Young people spend a large proportion of their leisure time in the home with other members of their family or with friends.
After the home, school is the main social environment where children not only receive their formal education but also develop their identities within peer groups. All schoolchildren in Britain are encouraged to take up activities which complement their academic and vocational education and help to identify their individual talents, such as sports, drama, music and creative pursuits. Many of these form part of school curricula.
The personal development and informal social education of young people aged 11-25 is also promoted by the Youth Service in Britain. The Service is a partnership between statutory authorities and a large number of voluntary organisations. A recent survey estimated that nearly 6 million young people in this age group are either current or past participants in the Service.
Youth clubs and centres are the most common types of Youth Service provision, encouraging their members to participate in sport, cultural and creative activities, and community service. Some also provide information and counselling. Youth clubs may be branches of national or international bodies or they may be entirely local institutions.
There are many religious groups and churches with specialist youth organisations, as well as uniformed organisations such as the Guides and Scouts Associations and Boys' and Girls' Brigades.
Finance is provided by many foundations and trusts for activities which develop the latent talents of Britain's young people. The Prince's Trust and the Royal Jubilee Trust, for example, help individuals and organisations active in youth-oriented projects related to urban deprivation, unemployment, homelessness and young offending. The Duke of Edinburgh's Award Scheme challenges young people to achieve certain standards in community service, expeditions, social and practical skills and physical recreation.
WOMEN
There is a ratio of about 104 females to every 100 males in Britain. There are about 3 per cent more male than female births every year. Because of the higher mortality of men at all ages, there is a turning point, at about 50 years of age, beyond which the number of women exceeds the number of men. This imbalance increases with age so that there are many more women among the elderly.
The economic and domestic lives of women have been transformed in during the 20th century. These changes are partly due to the removal of discrimination in political and legal rights which has promoted sex equality. Another major feature has been the increase in the number of women, especially married women, at work. The growth of part-time and flexible working patterns, and training and retraining schemes, has allowed more women to take advantage of employment opportunities. Childcare provision, such as day nurseries and childminders, has also increased significantly, extending choice and opportunity for women beyond the scope of home and family.