In the second type of mirror transference, the twinship or alter-ego transference, thenarcissist perceives the therapist to be psychologically similar to himself or herself. Conceptually the narcissist perceives the therapist and himself or herself to be twins,separate but alike. In the twinship transference for the selfobject cohesion to bemaintained, it is necessary for the narcissist to view the therapist as just like me (Manfield, 1992). The third type of mirror transference is again termed the mirror transference. In thisinstance the narcissist is only interested in the therapist to the extent that the therapist canreflect his or her grandiosity. In this transference relationship the function of thetherapist is to bolster the narcissist s insecure self (Manfield, 1992). The Idealizing Transference The second selfobject transference, the idealizing transference, involves theborrowing of strength from the object (the therapist) to maintain an internal sense ofcohesion. By idealizing the therapist to whom the narcissist feels connected, thenarcissist by association also uplifts himself or herself. It is helpful to conceptualize the idealizing narcissist as an infant who draws strength from the omnipotence of thecaregiver. Thus, in the idealizing transference the therapist symbolizes omnipotence andthis in turn makes the narcissist feel secure. The idealization of the object can become soimportant to the narcissist that in many cases he or she will choose to fault himself orherself, rather than blame the therapist (Manfield, 1992). The idealizing transference is a more mature form of transference than the mirrortransference because idealization requires a certain amount of internal structure (i.e.,separateness from the therapist). Oftentimes, the narcissist will first develop a mirrortransference, and only when his or her internal structure is sufficiently strong will theidealizing transference develop (Manfield, 1992). Utilizing the Transference Relationship in Therapy The selfobject transference relationships provide a stabilizing effect for the narcissist. The supportive therapist thus allows the narcissist to heal his or her current low selfesteem and reinstate the damaged grandiosity. However, healing the current narcissisticinjury does not address the underlying initial injury and in particular the issue of the falseself. To address these issues the therapist must skillfully take advantage of the situationswhen the narcissist becomes uncharacteristically emotional; that is when the narcissistfeels injured. It thus becomes crucial that within the context of the transferencerelationship, the therapist shift the narcissist s focus towards his or her inner feelings(Manfield, 1992). The prevailing opinion amongst Psychodynamic theorists is that the best way toaddress the narcissist s present experience, is to utilize a hands-off type of approach. This can be accomplished by letting the narcissist take control of the sessions,processing the narcissist s injuries as they inevitably occur during the course oftreatment. When a mirror transference develops injuries will occur when the therapistimproperly understands and/or reflects the narcissist s experiences. Similarly, when anidealizing transference is formed injuries will take the form of some disappointment withthe therapist which then interferes with the narcissist s idealization of the therapist. Ineither case, the narcissist is trying to cover up the injury so that the therapist will notnotice it. It remains up to the therapist to recognize the particular defense mechanismsthat the narcissist will use to defend against the pain of the injury, and work backwardsfrom there to discover the cause of the injury (Manfield, 1992). Once the cause of the injury is discovered the therapist must carefully explore theissue with the narcissist, such that the patient does not feel threatened. The followingcase provides a good example of the patience and skill that the therapist must possess indealing with a narcissistic patient. a female patient in her mid-thirties came into asession feeling elated about having gotten a new job. All she could talk about is howperfect this job was; there was no hint of introspection or of any dysphoric affect. Thetherapist could find no opening and made no intervention the entire session except toacknowledge the patient s obvious excitement about her new job. Then, as the patientwas leaving, the therapist noticed that she had left her eyeglasses on the table. He said, you forgot your glasses, to which she responded with an expression of surprise andembarrassment saying, Oh, how clumsy of me. This response presented the therapistwith a slight seem in the grandiose armor and offered the opportunity for him tointervene. He commented, You are so excited about the things that are happening toyou that this is all you have been able to think about; in the process you seem to haveforgotten a part of yourself. The patient smiled with a mixture of amusementand recognition. In this example the patient is defending throughout the session and in amoment of surprise she is embarrassed and labels herself clumsy , giving the therapistthe opportunity to interpret the defense (her focus on the excitement of the externalworld) and how it takes her away from herself (Manfield, 1992; PP. 168-169). The cure of the narcissist than does not come from the selfobject transferencerelationships per se. Rather, the selfobject transference function of the therapist iscurative only to the extent that it provides an external source of support which enablesthe narcissist to maintain his or her internal cohesion. For the narcissist to be cured, it isnecessary for him or her to create their own structure (the true self). The healing processis thus lengthy, and occurs in small increments whenever the structure supplied by thetherapist is inadvertently interrupted. In this context it is useful to recall Kohut s conceptof optimal frustration. If the interruptions to the therapist s selfobject function are notso severe as to overwhelm the patient s deficient internal structure, they function asoptimal frustrations, and lead to the patient s development of his own internal structureto make up for the interrupted selfobject function (Manfield, 1992; P. 167). The Jungian (Analytical) Perspective of Narcissism Analytical psychology views narcissism as a disorder of Self-estrangement, whicharises out of inadequate maternal care. However, prior to tackling narcissism it is usefulto grasp the essence of analytical thought. The Ego and the Self in Analytical Psychology It is important to understand that the Self in analytical psychology takes on a differentmeaning than in psychodynamic thought (Self is thus capitalized in analytical writings todistinguish it from the psychodynamic concept of the self). In psychodynamic theory theself is always ego oriented, that is the self is taken to be a content of the ego. Bycontrast, in analytical psychology the Self is the totality of the psyche, it is the archetypeof wholeness and the regulating center of personality. Moreover, the Self is also theimage of God in the psyche, and as such it is experienced as a transpersonal power whichtranscends the ego. The Self therefore exists before the ego, and the ego subsequentlyemerges from the Self (Monte, 1991). Within the Self we perceive our collective unconscious, which is made up ofprimordial images, that have been common to all members of the human race from thebeginning of life. These primordial images are termed archetypes, and play a significantrole in the shaping of the ego. Therefore, When the ego looks into the mirror of theSelf, what it sees is always unrealistic because it sees its archetypal image which cannever be fit into the ego (Schwartz-Salant, 1982; P. 19). Narcissism as an Expression of Self-Estrangement In the case of the narcissist, it is the shattering of the archetypal image of the motherwhich leads to the narcissistic manifestation. The primordial image of the mothersymbolizes paradise, to the extent that the environment of the child is perfectly designedto meet his or her needs. No mother, however, can realistically fulfill the child sarchetypal expectations. Nevertheless, so long as the mother reasonably fulfills thechild s needs he or she will develop normally . It is only when the mother fails to be a good enough mother , that the narcissistic condition will occur (Asper, 1993). When the mother-child relationship is damaged the child s ego does not develop in anoptimal way. Rather than form a secure ego-Self axis bond, the child s ego experiencesestrangement from the Self. This Self-estrangement negatively affects the child s ego,and thus the narcissist is said to have a negativized ego . The negativized ego thanproceeds to compensate for the Self-estrangement by suppressing the personal needswhich are inherent in the Self; thus the negativized ego of the narcissisticallydisturbed person is characterized by strong defense mechanisms and ego rigidity. Aperson with this disturbance has distanced himself from the painful emotions of negativeexperiences and has become egoistic, egocentric, and narcissistic (Asper, 1993; P. 82). Analytical Treatment of Narcissism Since the narcissistic condition is a manifestation of Self-estrangement, the analyticaltherapist attempts to heal the rupture in the ego-Self axis bond, which was created by thelack of good enough mothering. To heal this rupture the therapist must convey to thenarcissist through emphatic means that others do care about him or her; that is thetherapist must repair the archetype of the good mother through a maternally caringapproach (Asper, 1993). A maternal approach involves being attentive to the narcissist s needs. Just as amother can intuitively sense her baby s needs so must the therapist feel and observe whatis not verbally expressed by the narcissist. Such a maternal approach allows thenarcissist to experience more sympathy towards his or her true feelings and thusgradually the need to withdraw into the narcissistic defense disappears (Asper, 1993). The Existential Perspective of Narcissism Existentialists perceive narcissism to be a byproduct of an alienating society. It isdifficult for the individual to truly be himself or herself because society offers manyrewards for the individual who conforms to its rules. Such an individual becomesalienated because he or she feels that society s rituals and demands grant him or her littlesignificance and options in the control of his or her own destiny. To compensate such anindividual takes pleasure in his or her own uniqueness (grandiosity), he or she enjoyswhat others cannot see and control. Thus, the alienated person sees himself as a puppetcued by social circumstances which exact ritualized performances from him. Hisirritation about the inevitability of this is counterbalanced by one major consolation. This consists of his narcissistic affection for his own machinery-that is, his own processesand parts (Johnson, 1977; P. 141). Existential Treatment of Narcissism The existential treatment of the narcissist is based on the existential tenant that allexisting persons have the need and possibility of going out from their centeredness toparticipate in other beings (Monte, 1991; P. 492). The severely alienated narcissisticindividual, however, does not believe in the validity of experience outside of the self. Unlike others, the narcissist does not believe that a constructive relationship with othersis possible. Existentialists therefore believe that the therapist, through emphaticunderstanding, must create a strong bond with the narcissist, so that he or she can see thatothers have feelings too (Johnson, 1977). The Humanistic (Client-Centered) Perspective of Narcissism Thus far, no specific formulations have been advanced by humanistic theorists aboutthe etiology of the narcissistic condition. Nevertheless, by utilizing general humanisticprinciples it is possible to explain narcissism. Essentially, much like the psychodynamicexplanation, humanistic psychology would argue that narcissism results when individualsare not allowed to truly be who they are. According to humanistic theory, humans have an innate need for self actualization. We want to be the best person that we could possibly be. This is accomplished byinternalizing the behaviors that fit with the individual s personal self concept (that whichthe individual finds to be appealing). However the self is also subject to pressure fromsignificant others. Significant others place upon the individual, conditions of worth,upon which their love and approval is dependent. These conditions may or may not becongruent with the individual s personal self. If they contrast sharply with the personalself, and the individual does not want to risk loosing the approval or love of significantothers, then that individual will behave in ways maladaptive to his or her selfactualization needs. Although humanistic theory does not elaborate on the specificity of these maladaptivebehaviors, it is possible to speculate that narcissism is one possible outcome. Specifically, the narcissistic individual chooses to mask his or her damaged personal selfby the display of a perfect grandiose front to the world. Humanistic Treatment of Narcissism The humanistic treatment of the narcissist, is in general no different from thehumanistic treatment of any other client. The humanistic therapist wants the narcissist torediscover his or her individuality, which was suppressed by the conditions of worthimposed by significant others. In order to accomplish this, the proper environment mustbe set in therapy, free of any conditions of worth. The narcissist must feel that whateverhe or she does is all right with the therapist. The therapist therefore gives the narcissistunconditional positive regard. There is no judgment of the narcissist, instead thetherapist honestly and caringly tries to see things through the eyes of the narcissist. When the narcissist comes to accept his or her true needs he or she will be congruentwith the personal self and the narcissistic front will no longer be needed. Comparative Analysis Each of the psychological approaches discussed above contains both strengths andweaknesses, in attempting to solve the narcissistic puzzle. Nevertheless, thepsychodynamic model possesses a big advantage over the other approaches in its abilityto offer both a comprehensive theory of etiology and a detailed description of treatment. With respect to etiology the other approaches suffer from: a lack of concreteobservational validity (the analytical approach), lack of clarity in capturing the essenceof narcissism (the existential approach), and lack of continuity in predicting narcissism(the humanistic approach). The analytical model of narcissism depends on too many hypothetical concepts, suchas the collective unconscious, which are not supported by any concrete evidence. Truethe psychodynamic model introduces some hypothetical concepts of its own but theseconcepts are backed by Mahler s comprehensive developmental theory. The existentialmodel seems to confuse narcissism with the schizoid condition. By emphasizing thenarcissist s tendency to withdraw into the pleasures of the self, existentialists overlookthe immense suffering which so characterizes the narcissist. The humanistic modelshares much in common with the psychodynamic model about the etiology of narcissism. However, unlike the psychodynamic model it is rather vague about why this etiologyleads to the emergence of narcissism. With respect to treatment the major advantage of the psychodynamic approach is thatit goes beyond the exclusive use of emphatic means to treat the narcissist. By limitingtreatment to emphatic understanding the other approaches fail to address the underlyingissues inherent in narcissism. Therefore, the other approaches might shore up thenarcissist s damaged self esteem in the short run, but it is doubtful if they will be ableto transform the narcissist. Possibly the only weakness of the psychodynamic approach lies in the length that ittakes to treat narcissism. Recall that a successful psychodynamic treatment requires thetherapist to be very careful about maintaining the narcissist s delicate self perception. Only gradually can the psychodynamic therapist direct the narcissist s attention towardsthe real underlying emotional feelings. Conclusion No matter which approach is utilized in the explanation and treatment of narcissismit is important to recognize that the narcissistic individual is a complex and multifacetedhuman being. Deep inside narcissistic individuals experience tremendous pain andsuffering, for which they attempt to compensate for by the projection of the grandiosefront. These people are not character disordered. They are people tortured bynarcissistic injury and crippled by developmental arrests in functioning which rob themof the richness of life they deserve. They are good people, who are hurting. They areliving and suffering the narcissistic style. ReferencesAsper, Kathrin. (1993). The abandoned child within. New York: Fromm International Publishing Corporation. Carson, Robert C & Butcher, James N. (1992). Abnormal psychology and modern life. New York: Harper Collins Publishers. Goldberg, Carl. (1980). In defense of narcissism. New York: Gardner Press.Grunberger, Bela. (1979). Narcissism. New York: International Universities Press Inc. Johnson, Frank A. (1977). The existential psychotherapy of alienated persons. In Marie Coleman Nelson (Ed.), The narcissistic condition. 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