Fourth Generation (1971-Present)
After the integrated circuits, the only place to go was down – in size,
that is. Large scale integration (LSI) could fit hundreds of components
onto one chip. By the 1980’s, very large scale integration (VLSI) squeezed
hundreds of thousands of components onto a chip. Ultra-large scale integration
(ULSI) increased that number into the millions. The ability to fit so
much onto an area about half the size of a U.S. dime helped diminish the
size and price of computers. It also increased their power, efficiency
and reliability. The Intel 4004 chip,
developed in 1971, took the integrated circuit one step further by locating
all the components of a computer (central processing unit, memory, and
input and output controls) on a minuscule chip. Whereas previously the
integrated circuit had had to be manufactured to fit a special purpose,
now one microprocessor could be manufactured and then programmed to meet
any number of demands. Soon everyday household items such as
microwave ovens, television sets and automobiles
with electronic fuel injection
incorporated microprocessors.
Such condensed power allowed everyday people to harness a computer’s
power. They were no longer developed exclusively for large business or
government contracts. By the mid-1970’s, computer manufacturers sought
to bring computers to general consumers. These minicomputers came complete
with user-friendly software packages that offered even non-technical users
an array of applications, most popularly word processing and spreadsheet
programs. Pioneers in this field were Commodore,
Radio Shack and Apple
Computers. In the early 1980’s, arcade
video games such as Pac Man and
home video game systems such as the
Atari 2600 ignited consumer interest for more sophisticated, programmable
home computers.
In 1981, IBM introduced its personal computer (PC) for use in the home,
office and schools. The 1980’s saw an expansion in computer use in all
three arenas as clones of the IBM PC made the personal computer even more
affordable. The number of personal computers in use more than doubled
from 2 million in 1981 to 5.5 million in 1982. Ten years later, 65 million
PCs were being used. Computers continued their trend toward a smaller
size, working their way down from desktop to laptop computers (which could
fit inside a briefcase) to palmtop (able to fit inside a breast pocket).
In direct competition with IBM’s PC was Apple’s Macintosh line, introduced
in 1984. Notable for its user-friendly design, the Macintosh offered an
operating system that allowed users to move screen icons instead of typing
instructions. Users controlled the screen cursor using a mouse, a device
that mimicked the movement of one’s hand on the computer screen.
As computers became more widespread in the workplace, new ways to harness
their potential developed. As smaller computers became more powerful,
they could be linked together, or networked, to share memory space, software,
information and communicate with each other. As opposed to a mainframe
computer, which was one powerful computer that shared time with many terminals
for many applications, networked computers allowed individual computers
to form electronic co-ops. Using either direct wiring, called a Local
Area Network (LAN), or telephone lines, these networks could reach
enormous proportions. A global web of computer circuitry, the Internet,
for example, links computers worldwide into a single network of information.
During the 1992 U.S. presidential election, vice-presidential candidate
Al Gore
promised to make the development of this so-called "information superhighway"
an administrative priority. Though the possibilities envisioned by Gore
and others for such a large network are often years (if not decades) away
from realization, the most popular use today for computer networks such
as the Internet is electronic mail, or E-mail, which allows users to type
in a computer address and send messages through networked terminals across
the office or across the world.
Fifth Generation (Present and Beyond)
Defining the fifth generation of computers is somewhat difficult because
the field is in its infancy. The most famous example of a fifth generation
computer is the fictional HAL9000
from Arthur
C. Clarke’s novel, 2001: A
Space Odyssey. HAL performed all of the functions currently
envisioned for real-life fifth generation computers. With artificial
intelligence, HAL could reason well enough to hold conversations with
its human operators, use visual input, and learn from its own experiences.
(Unfortunately, HAL was a little too human and had a psychotic breakdown,
commandeering a spaceship and killing most humans on board.)
Though the wayward HAL9000 may be far from the reach of real-life computer
designers, many of its functions are not. Using recent engineering advances,
computers are able to accept spoken
word instructions (voice recognition) and imitate human reasoning.
The ability to translate a foreign language is also moderately possible
with fifth generation computers. This feat seemed a simple objective at
first, but appeared much more difficult when programmers realized that
human understanding relies as much on context and meaning as it does on
the simple translation of words.
Many advances in the science of computer design and technology are coming
together to enable the creation of fifth-generation computers. Two such
engineering advances are parallel processing, which replaces von Neumann’s
single central processing unit design with a system harnessing the power
of many CPUs to work as one. Another advance is superconductor
technology, which allows the flow of electricity with little or no resistance,
greatly improving the speed of information flow. Computers today have
some attributes of fifth generation computers. For example, expert systems
assist doctors in making diagnoses by applying the problem-solving steps
a doctor might use in assessing a patient’s needs. It will take several
more years of development before expert systems are in widespread use.
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Timothy Trainor and Diane Trainor
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