What was the reason for all these sacrifices? The Aztecs thought their gods would turn against them if they were not given human sacrifices. For example, they believed that if the sun god were not fed human hearts and blood, the sun would not rise and the world would end in disaster. The Aztecs believed that their special purpose in life was to delay that destruction. They sacrificed to the gods to avoid destruction for as long as possible. The number of victims to the gods was enormous. During one famine, the Aztecs sacrificed over 10,000 people. Most of them had been captured in war.
Like most agricultural people, the Aztecs worshiped gods whom they believed controlled the forces of nature. In addition to the all-powerful sun god, they worshiped the god of rain and the plumed serpent, Quetzalcoatl, who was the god of wind and resurrection.
Artistic and Scientific Contributions
Archeologists have learned about the Aztec gods and religious ceremonies from the artwork found in the ruins of their cities. The images of the gods are represented in stone sculptures and carved wall scuptures on the walls of the temples. The inside walls of the buildings have remains of brilliantly colored paintings showing ceremonial events, such as the human sacrifices. An especially famous Aztec sculpture is the enormous calendar stone, a carved
stone circle 12 ft. in diameter. The calendar represents the Aztec universe with the face of the sun god in the center. He is surrounded by designs that symbolize the days and months and the locations of heavenly bodies at different times of the year.
The Aztec developed a writing and counting system based on pictographs in which each picture represented an object or the sound of a syllable. Their counting system was based on the number 20, in which one picture represented 20 items, another 20 x 20 ( = 400) items and so on. Archaelogists have learned to decode some of their writings, which talk about historical events and provide records of supplies and items for trade.
The Spanish Conquest
In 1521 Hernando Cort?s, a Spanish Conquistador, or conqueror, defeated the Aztecs. With just 500 soldiers and a few cannons, he overthrew thousands of mighty Aztec warriors. The Spanish had firearms. No Aztec weapon made from stone or bone could compete with cannon and gun. The second reason was that Cort?s received help from thousands of Aztec enemies. For many years, the fierce Aztecs had been warring. They forced conquered nations to pay high taxes. They made slaves of many. Worst of all, they sacrificed thousands to the gods. Conquered tribes were vengeful indeed. Willingly, they joined the Spanish to destroy their captors. With 500 Spanish soldiers and 10,000 Indian allies behind him, Cort?s charged the Aztec capital. The Spanish cannons and guns proved too much for the Aztecs and in the summer of 1521 they were defeated and their last king was executed.
The Aztecs’ Arrival in the Central Valley of Mexico
Mexicas, the Early Aztecs – The Aztecs, known around AD 1200 as the Mexicas (ME tree kahs), began a long, wandering journey from northern Mexico toward the central valley. They carried with them their tribal god, whose name meant “Humming Bird of the South.” He was god of war and the sun. They believed that this god would lead them to a special place.
An Aztec Legend
According to Aztec legend, the god told them to make their home on the spot where they saw an eagle perched on a cactus with a serpent in its mouth. Again according to legend, the Aztecs saw the eagle on an island in Lake Texcoco in Mexico’s central valley. There they stopped and made their home, building the city of Tenochtitlan. Today the eagle and serpent are shown on the flag of Mexico.
A Rise to Power
Tenochtitlan, the Central City – At its height, the Aztec Empire included millions of people. Even though no one knows exactly how many people there were, it seems clear that the Aztec Empire had a population equal to the large European countries at the time! Tenochtitlfin alone, which may have had as many as 200,000 people, was larger than any European city. Along the shores of Lake Texcoco were other cities. These cities were connected to Tenochtitlfin by a system of causeways, or raised earthen roads, built across the lake. Bridges on the causeways allowed canoes to go from one part of the lake to another.
Island Gardens, or Chinampas – A productive agriculture helped support the large population of Tenochtitlan. The Aztecs planted corn and other crops in irrigated fields around Lake Texcoco. They built more islands from layers of reeds, other plants, and mud in the shallow water of the lake. The islands covered most of the southern part of the lake and were planted with crops that produced large amounts of food. These island gardens were called Chinampas. One Aztec crop was tomatoes. The English word tomato comes from the Aztec word tomatl, meaning “the swelling fruit.”
Aztec Warfare
The Aztec Conquerors – The Aztecs carried on constant wars with neighboring peoples. They fought with wooden swords that had sharp stone blades. They also used bows and arrows as well as spears. Their armor was padded cotton made into suits fitted to the body. This armor worked well against the weapons of other Indians. However, it was little protection against the steel swords, arrows, muskets, and cannons of the Spaniards.
The main purpose of the Aztec wars was to capture enemy soldiers so that thousands could be sacrificed, or offered, to the gods. Captives were brought to Tenochtitlan. There they were led up the steps of a great pyramid on the top of which stood a temple. In front of the temple stood the sacrificial altar. While drums boomed, each unlucky captive was held down on the altar. The sharp knife of an Aztec priest flashed in the sun, and in an instant the victim’s chest was opened. The priest then reached in, grabbed the heart, and held it aloft for all to see. In this manner, the Aztecs sacrificed thousands of people each year.
Cycles of Creation and Destruction
Religious Beliefs among the Aztec had a number of important beliefs. In common with other groups in Middle America, the Aztecs believed that the world had been created and destroyed several times. Ultimately, they believed their world would again end in disaster. The Aztecs thought that their special purpose in life was to delay that destruction. They sacrificed to the god of war and the sun to keep the sun in the sky and avoid destruction for as long as possible.
Priestly Powers
Many other Aztec gods controlled natural forces. For example, there was a god of rain and a god of wind. These gods also required attention, although they might not have demanded human sacrifice. Life was very insecure, since the gods could cause all sorts of problems if they became unhappy. It was important, therefore, to know what the gods wanted. The priests supposedly had the ability to interpret signs of the gods’ pleasure or unhappiness. Priests had enormous power in the Aztec society.
The priests also understood the great ceremonial calendar. It told of holy days that called for happy celebrations with song and dance. It also told of other days that were solemn and required fasting. The Aztecs believed that the calendar, if properly understood, could foretell the future.
Nobles and Commoners
You may recall that civilization and the importance of specialization were mentioned earlier. Aztec priests are an example of specialization. The priests were supported by the efforts of other people. They did not grow their own food or make their own clothes. Priests enjoyed power and privilege. The priests formed part of the upper class.
Aztec society, like all complex societies, had different social classes. People at the top – nobles, high priests, and people important in the military and government – had lives of luxury, with fine houses, clothing, and jewelry. The largest class was made up of commoners, such as farmers, servants, and craftspeople. In Aztec society, commoners were organized into clans, or groups, made up of many different families. Each clan joined people together throughout their lives. Members of a clan all lived in the same district. Merchants formed yet another class in Aztec society, separate from the commoners.
The Aztecs carried on a great deal of trade with other Indian nations. Traders, or pochtecas, also acted as spies when they went to other Indian cities. They brought back not only goods but also valuable information, such as any signs of unrest in the Empire or possible danger to the Aztec traders. Like the commoners, traders lived in their own district. However, traders were prosperous.
Territory
The ancient Inca civilization thrived in an area that stretched along the west coast of South America from 1100 AD to early in the 1500’s, when they were conquered by the Spanish. The Incas were originally a warlike tribe from the Andes Mountains, who moved down into the valley below. From this convenient location, they began to conquer other tribes in the surrounding area. By 1500 the Incas were the largest and richest of the ancient empires of the Americas. The Inca empire eventually extended some 2500 miles from their capital city of Cuzco along the western coast of Latin America. Their territory was very diverse both in climate and in terrain, for it included the high peaks and fertile valleys of the Andes mountains, the tropical forests on the eastern edges of the mountains and a long strip of drought-stricken desert along the western coast. The Incas ruled over hundreds of different tribes who spoke may different languages.
Inca Society
The Incas used a large army to maintain control and could quickly defeat any tribes that rebelled. They also instituted a strictly organized social structure, ruled by a god-like, all powerful ruler, called the Inca. Beneath the Inca were the royal family, several levels of nobility, priests, the administrators and government experts, and the large mass of common people – craftsmen, farmers and soldiers. People’s lives were strictly controlled, but the government protected them and made sure that they were well fed and had what they needed to live and work.
The Incas also invented very advanced agricultural, building and engineering methods. They are remembered as great builders. One of their most important creations was the elaborate system of stone roads and bridges they built to connect all the parts of the country. They had no horses, but used trained runners to deliver their messages to surrounding areas. Running in relays, the runners could cover as much as 250 miles per day so that messages and reports could be quickly delivered across great distances. And since the Incas forced all the conquered people to learn their language, having a common language also helped people communicate throughout the empire. Unlike the Maya and Aztec cultures, the Incas did not develop a written language. However, the Incas did have a number system that used knotted strings, called a quipu. They used quipus to keep accurate records of troops, supplies, population data, and agricultural inventories. Thus, they could plan which crops to plant to meet future needs, and they could assign people with particular skills to work on specific tasks, such as road building, hauling materials, tending crops, serving as soldiers, making pottery, or constructing houses and temples.
The Incas were also skilled farmers. Government experts taught the farmers new techniques for irrigating their crops, for draining marshlands, and for terracing the land to plant on steep hillsides. The terraces were narrow earthen platforms on the mount