Грамматика английского языка Морфология. Синтаксис (стр. 26 из 71)
I shall certainly give evidence on your behalf, if required.
John will speak for hours, unless interrupted.
concession, with the conjunction though or although:
Though asked in disarming sociability, Haldone’s question was loaded.
comparison, with the conjunction as if or as though:
“I get off the train,” he repeated as if hypnotized.
Predicative constructions with participle II
§ 149. Participle II forms the second (verbal) element of the objective with the participle construction and of the absolute participial construction in two variants: non-prepositional and prepositional.
§ 150. The objective participial construction with participle II.
The objective participial construction with participle II consists of a noun in the common case or a personal pronoun in the objective case and participle II forming a syntactical complex, in which the two components are in a preducative relationship.
| I must have my watch mended. I never heard him spoken of badly. | Мне нужно починить часы. Я никогда не слышал, чтобы о нем плохо отзывались. |
The construction functions as a complex object to transitive verbs, mainly verbs (a) of causative meaning, (b) of physical perception, (c) of wish:
a) to have, to get, to make
You must have your photo taken.
Where did you have your hair done?
I won’t have my best friend laughed at.
We must get our tickets registered.
The speaker made himself heard with the help of a microphone.
Besides the causative meaning suggesting inducement, sentences the verb to have may occasionally express experience or possess participle II emphasizing the resulting state, as in:
The patient has an arm broken.
I have my task done.
If the action is emphasized, the perfect form is preferable:
The patient has broken an arm.
I have done my task.
Notice the difference in translation:
У больного сломана рука. Больной сломал руку.
Мое задание выполнено. Я выполнил задание.
b) to see, to hear, to feel, to find
I saw Jane addressed by a stranger.
Have you ever heard the writer’s name mentioned before?
We found the door locked.
c) to wish, to want, to like, to prefer
I want the answer sent at once.
We prefer the letter answered by the chief.
Sentences with causative verbs are usually translated into Russian by simple sentences, the causative meaning being evident from the context or the situation. In other cases a complex sentence with an object clause is preferable.
§ 151. The nominative absolute participial construction with participle II.
The construction consists of the nominal element (a noun in the common case or a pronoun in the nominative case) and participle II which form a syntactical complex, the nominal element and the participle being in subject-predicate relation. The preparation completed, we started off.
The nominative absolute participial construction with participle being has the syntactical function of a detached adverbial modifier of attendant circumstances (a), manner (b), time (c), reason (d), condition (e).
a) The next day I observed you - myself unseen - for half an hour.
She was smoking now, her eyes narrowed thoughtfully.
b) He sat on the sofa, his legs crossed.
c) The duster refolded and restored, he threw his legs across the saddle. “Give it to Harriet, please,” was
then the direction, “and she can put it away.” This said, he turned and fixed his eyes on Mrs. Bretton.
d) We began to talk, but my attention distracted by my surroundings, I took small notice of him.
e) He was a gentleman, but he was passionate, the cup once sipped, would he consent to put it down?
§ 152. The prepositional absolute construction with participle II.
This construction differs from the discussed above in that it is introduced by the preposition with and its nominal element is hardly ever presented by a pronoun; it is more closely related to the predicate verb and is seldom set off by a comma.
She went on reading with her eyes fixed on the pages of the book.
It is unhealthy to sleep with the windows shut.
The main syntactical function of the construction is that of an adverbial modifier of manner or attendant circumstances.
An additional idea of time, reason, or condition may be prompted by the context, as in: I can’t walk with my leg broken (reason).
§ 153. Modal verbs, unlike other verbs, do not denote actions to states, but only show the attitude of the speaker towards the action expressed by the infinitive in combination with which they form compound modal predicates. Thus modal verbs may show that the action (or state, or process, or quality) is viewed by the speaker as possible, obligatory, doubtful, certain, permissible, advisable, requested, prohibited, ordered, etc. Modal verbs occur only with the infinitive. This or that meaning is to a great degree determined by the comminicative type of the sentence and the form of the infinitive.
There are 12 modal verbs in English. They are: can, may, must, should ought, shall, will, would, need, dare, to be, to have (to have got). The latter two are modal only in one of their meanings.
Ten of them (that is, all but to be and to have) are also called defective or anomalous verbs as they lack some features characteristic of other verbs, that is:
1) they do not take -s in the third person singular;
2) they have no verbals, so they have no analytical forms;
3) they have (except for can and may) only one form and no past tense;
4) they are followed (except for ought) by a bare infinitive (that is by the infinitive without the particle to);
5) they need no auxiliary to build up the interrogative and negative forms.
All modal verbs have 2 negative forms, full and contracted.
| full form may not must not would not should not need not | contracted form mayn’t mustn’t wouldn’t shouldn’t needn’t |
Some of them have peculiarities both in spelling and pronunciation:
| cannot shall not will not | Can’t [ka:nt] Shan’t [∫a:nt] Won’t [wount] |
§ 154. This modal verb has two forms: can - for the present tense and could - for the past tense and for the subjunctive mood.
I can’t dance now but I could when I was young.
I wish I could go with you.
I. Can followed by the non-perfect common aspect infinitive expresses:
1. Physical and mental ability or capacity.
The notion of ability is also expressed by “to be able to”.
Mary can speak English quite well but she can’t write it at all (can = to be able, to know how to...).
John can keep a secret if he wants to (can = to be capable of).
I can drive a car = I know how to...
I couldn’t understand him when he spoke very fast (= was unable to, was incapable of...).
He could (was able to) speak English very well when he was twelve.
The meaning of ability is expressed only by “to be able to” when the reference is to the future, as can, having no infinitive, has no future tense form.
Soon he will be able to speak English quite fluently.
Can is interchangeable with to be able to when it denotes mere capacity,
I couldn’t/was not able to do that new job; it was too difficult.
This man could/was able to cure all diseases.
But only to be able to is used to express attainment or achievement of something through some capacity. Thus to be able to often combines the idea of “ability” and “achievement”. In this case was able to means “managed to” or “succeeded in”, and could is impossible.
The fire brigade was able (succeeded in putting, managed) to put out the fire before it destroyed the other
buildings. Пожарные сумели, им удалось ...
I was able to go to the mountains yesterday as I had a day off (I could and went).
I was able to finish my work in an hour (I managed, I could and did it).
2. Possibility.
a) possibility due to circumstances:
Anybody can make a mistake. Ошибаться может каждый.
You can hardly blame him for that. Вряд ли можно его за это винить.
I couldn’t take your coat without paying you for it.
b) possibility due to the existing rules of laws:
In old days a man could be sentenced to death for a small crime. В старые времена можно было
приговорить человека к смерти за небольшое преступление.
The Lower House alone can initiate financial measures. Только Палата представителей может
выносить на рассмотрение финансовые вопросы.
c) possibility of the idea (the so-called “theoretical” possibility):
The railways can be improved. (It is possible for the railways to be improved, as they are not yet
perfect.)
In general statements of possibility can has roughly the same meaning as “sometimes”.
The sea can be rough. = The sea is sometimes rough. Mope иногда бывает бурным.
Can is generally used in questions about possibility and in statements about impossibility.
Can this be true? (Is it possible that this is true?) Неужели это правда?
This can’t be true. (It is impossible that this is true.)
3. Permission.
Can we go home, Miss? Можно идти домой, мисс?
Не can go now. Теперь он может идти.
The teacher said we could go home. Учитель разрешил нам идти домой.
Can is now more common than may (or might) to express the idea permission.
4. Prohibition (it is found only with the negative form of the modal verb, as prohibition may be understood as the negation of permission - not to be allowed to...). It corresponds to the Russian нельзя, не надо.
You can’t cross the street here. Здесь нельзя переходить улицу.
You can’t touch the exhibits in a museum (it is not allowed).
- Can we stay here? - No, I’m afraid you can’t. (It’s not allowed.)
5. Request.
Can you hold on a minute, please?
Can I have some water?
Can you put the meat in salted water?
Could suggests a greater degree of politeness:
Could you come again tomorrow?
II. Can followed by any form of the infinitive may express:
1. Strong doubt, improbability, incredulity. This meaning occurs only with the negative form of the modal verb + perfect infinitive, continuous infinitive, or be.
| He can’t be working at this time (it’s impossible that he is working...) He can’t have seen it (it’s impossible that he saw it). He can’t be there. | - He может быть, чтобы он работал сейчас. - He может быть, чтобы он видел это. - He может быть, чтобы он был там. |
Could is used instead of can to express greater doubt. Thus the difference between can and could is in the degree of expressiveness, could showing a greater degree of doubt or incredulity. The time-reference is indicated not by the form of the verb but by that of the infinitive.
 He | Can’t Couldn’t | be so old. | - He может быть, что он так стар. | |
 Не | Can’t Couldn’t | be telling the truth. | - не может быть, что он говорит правду. | |
| He | Can’t Couldn’t | have told the truth. | - не может быть, чтобы он сказал правду. | |
2. Surprise, when can/could is used in questions. It corresponds to the Russian неужели ...
Can it be so late as all that? Неужели уже так поздно?
То refer the action to the past a perfect infinitive is used.
Could he have known her before? Неужели он знал ее раньше?
Could he have been telling her the truth?
Can (could) he have let you down?
The verb can expressing surprise is not used in the negative form.
Therefore the Russian negative questions of the type - нeyжeли он не ... is translated into English in different ways:
a) by complex sentences:
Can if be that you haven’t seen him?
Неужели вы не видели его?
b) by different lexical means:
Can you have failed to see him?
Неужели вы не видели его?
Can you dislike the book?
Неужели вам не нравится эта книга?
Can nobody have seen him?
Неужели никто не видел его?
Can he have never written that letter?
Неужели он так и не написал письмо?
3. Reproach, implying that a person should have done something, or behaved in a certain way, but didn’t do it. This meaning is found only with the form could.
You could at least have met me at the station, couldn’t you?
In this sense could is interchangeable with might.
4. Purpose. This meaning occurs only with the form could in clauses of purpose.
I wrote down the telephone number so that I could remember it.
Note some set expressions with the modal verb can:
Cannot/can’t help doing smth. - He могу не делать что-то
When I saw him I couldn’t help laughing. - Когда я увидел его, я не мог не засмеяться.
Cannot/can’t but do smth. - не могу не ...
I cannot but suggest... - Я не могу не предложить ...
We cannot but hope he is right. - Нам остается только надеяться, что... (не можем не надеяться...)