Грамматика английского языка Морфология. Синтаксис (стр. 63 из 71)
At this age (and I judged him to be neat-fifty) he looked extremely young.
In formal English relative pronouns and adverbs introducing descriptive clauses may also occur in prepositional phrases opening the subordinate clause, for example: according to which, instead of which, in spite of which, on which, of which, to whom, since when, etc.; also within nominal phrases of the type: the largest part of which, each of which, many examples of which, during which time, which fact, etc. The relative pronoun approaches in its function the anaphoric demonstrative pronoun this, and the clause can be paraphrased by a coordinate or parenthetical clause. For example:
Then a breakfast was given in his honour, on which occasion many speeches were pronounced (and on
this occasion many speeches were pronounced).
The medicine was overdosed, which fact caused the immediate death of the patient (and this fact caused
the immediate death of the patient).
Note:
Compounds of where and a preposition, such as whereby, wherefore, whereto, etc., are now confined to extremely formal English only and are replaced in less formal style by for which, by which, to which, etc.
§ 162. An attributive descriptive clause referring to a whole clause, sentence, series of sentences, or even a whole story is called a continuative (or sentential) attributive clause. It is generally introduced by the connective which, occasionally by that.
When the attributive continuative clause refers to a sentence, it may be separated by a semicolon, a dash, or even by a full stop.
She lived in two rooms over a teashop, which was convenient, since she could send down for cakes and
scones if she had visitors. (...Что было удобно... поскольку...).
Several times he caught her looking at him with a hurt, puzzled expression, which pleased his evil mood
(...что тешило его злобу).
The complex sentence with an adverbial clause
§ 163. Adverbial clauses are usually classified according to their meaning, that is, according to the relation they bear to the main clause. They differ from nominal and attributive clauses in that they are introduced by conjunctions with a more distinct meaning. Some types of adverbial clauses may be introduced by at least a dozen different conjunctions (as for instance adverbial clauses of time). On the other hand, many of the conjunctions are used to introduce more than one kind of clause (as, since, that, when, now that). In some cases the meanings and functions of the conjunction are so numerous that it is really difficult to say what the basic meaning of the conjunction is, as its function depends on the meaning of the clauses and their relationship.
Conditional clauses may be joined asyndetically, though they have link-inversion in this case. Here the meaning and function of the clause can be inferred only from the meaning of the subordinate and the main clause.
An adverbial clause may qualify the whole main clause, the verbal predicate or any verbal part, and also parts expressed by an adjective or adverb. Its position therefore varies: it may be initial, medial, or final -depending on the position of the part of the sentence it refers to and on the general structure of the main clause.
Women are very shy when they are expressing their emotions.
One day, because the days were so short, he decided to give up algebra and geometry. 
Types of adverbial clauses
§ 164. According to their semantics we distinguish adverbial clauses of place, time, manner, comparison, condition, concession, purpose, cause, result.
The complex sentence with an adverbial clause of place
§ 165. An adverbial clause of place defines the place or the direction of the action expressed in the principal clause. It may be introduced by one of the following conjunctions: where, whence, wherever, everywhere (that) and conjunctive adverbs with prepositions. A clause introduced by wherever can express direction as well as position.
He was standing where he always had stood, on the rug before the living-room fire.
From where he stood he could see nothing.
Wherever they came people greeted them enthusiastically.
Why can’t we go where it’s warm?
He took a chair whence he could see the street.
| Note: Adverbial clauses of place introduced by the conjunction where should not be confused with predicative or object clauses introduced by the conjunctive adverb where or its derivatives, or with attributive clauses introduced, by the relative adverb where. The descrimination is determined by the meaning and nature of the word the clause refers to. The young people went off at once to wherever they were going. (adverbial clause) I wonder where you are hurrying. (object clause) This must be where my sister lives. (predicative clause) Here is the house where we stayed last year. (attributive clause) |
The complex sentence with an adverbial clause of time
§ 166. An adverbial clause of time characterizes the action expressed in the main clause from the temporal point of view. The action may be expressed by a finite or non-finite form of the verb.
An adverbial clause of time may be introduced by conjunctions: as, as soon as, as long as, when, whenever, while, now that, till, until, after, before, since; recently formed conjunctions and phrasal conjunctions: the time (that), the day (that), the moment, the instant, next time, every (each) time, directly, immediately, instantly, once.
Every conjunction in the above list imparts a particular shade of meaning to the temporal relation - priority, simultaneity, succession of actions, the beginning or the end of the action, repetition, coincidence of two actions, gradual development of a process, etc. These temporal relations can be illustrated by the following examples:
When a Forsyte was engaged, married, or born, the Forsytes were present. Whenever there was a pause, he gently asked again. (The conjunctions when and whenever introduce clauses expressing repetition.)
As they stood up Ivory clapped him on the shoulder. (The subordinate clause denotes the moment when the action of the principal clause takes place.)
While he walked around Christine sat and knitted at a distance. (The predicate in the subordinate clause expresses a durative action, which coincides in time with the action expressed by the predicate in the main clause.)
And now that Cecily had married, she might be having children too. Our hostess, once everyone had arrived, was full of good humour. (In both these cases the predicate in the subordinate clause expresses a completed prior action which fixes the moment from which the action or state expressed in the main clause becomes possible; therefore the subordinate clause of time has a shade of causal meaning.)
As they approached the house, they became quieter and quieter. (Both the actions are gradually developing.)
They were calling each other ‘George’ and 'Elizabeth' before they reached Camden Town. (The subordinate clause points to the moment before which the action of the main clause was in progress. The action of the predicate in the subordinate clause is posterior.)
The heavy guns began again soon after it was light. (The action of the subordinate clause, which is prior, fixes the beginning of the action in the main clause.)
The conjunctions till and until introduce clauses which fix the end of the action in the main clause if the latter contains no negation, as in:
She resolved to wait till Clym came to look for her.
If the time reference in the subordinate clause with till or until is to a commencement point, the main clause is always negative. For example:
He did not say a word till he was asked.
They did not marry until she was forty.
The boy did not start to read until he went to school.
Corresponding sentences with affirmative main clauses are impossible unless, the conjunction before is used.
*He said a word till he was asked ——> He said some words before he was asked.
*They married until she was forty ——> They married before she was forty.
The conjunction since may introduce a clause which indicates the beginning of a period of time continuing until now or until some time in the past. In the first case the present perfect is used in the principal clause, in the second the past perfect. In a temporal clause the past indefinite tense is used in both cases. For example:
I have only seen him once since I left school.
She had been such of a companion to him since she was three years old.
If the actions expressed in both clauses are durative and still continuing, the present perfect tense is used in both the clauses, as in:
Since we have been friends we have never quarrelled.
Conjunctions of recent formation have mainly been formed from nouns denoting time, although some are formed from adverbs denoting time. They are the time, the moment, the instant, immediately, directly and others. Most of them are used to introduce subordinate clauses denoting the exact moment of the action in the main clause or the quick succession of the actions in both clauses.
We’ll be married the very moment we find a house.
Immediately he had lain down and closed his eyes, his consciousness went racing on without him.
Directly he saw me, he slipped back into the room.
Some of the temporal conjunctions are not confined to clauses of time. Thus as may be used to join clauses of cause, manner, concession, comparison and also to introduce parenthetic clauses. The conjunction since may introduce clauses of reason. The conjunctions when and while may express adversative relations, in which case they can hardly be considered subordinating conjunctions. When can introduce a clause containing a new piece of information, not prepared for by the preceding narrative, and thus indicates a quick succession of actions. The conjunction whenever generally expresses temporal relations, but the idea of time often mingles with that of concession.
At the sound of that knock she jumped up, when the brass candlestick clattered to the floor. (The
conjunction when expresses the quick succession of actions.)
She left the room in the pursuit of her duties, when no duty could have taken her away if she had wished
to stay.
His life has been ruined for him, when he is but one-and-twenty.(In the last two sentences the conjunction
when expresses a concessive relation.)
The complex sentence with an adverbial clause of manner
§ 167. Adverbial clauses of manner characterize actions, states, qualities, circumstances. Therefore they may have different reference. The most common conjunctions to introduce them are as and the way.
Adverbial clauses of manner may have different reference:
I. Adverbial clauses of manner may modify the predicate of the main clause by attributing some quality to it.
I’m sorry I talked the way I did at lunch.
She cooks the turkey exactly as my mother did.
He could do it as no one else could have done.
II. They may refer to attributes or predicatives characterizing a state or quality of a person or non-person.
Astonished, as one could be in such circumstances, he didn’t give a sign of it.
He was puzzled by the situation, as one could easily be in his place.
III. They may refer to an adverbial modifier, giving additional information or explanation concerning it.
He said it with contempt, as a grown-up serious man should treat such views.
In the second and the third case the connection between the clauses is rather loose, and the subordinate clause is generally set off by commas.
The complex sentence with an adverbial clause of comparison
§ 168. Adverbial clauses of comparison characterize the action expressed by the predicate in the main clause by comparing it with some real or hypothetical circumstance or action.
Clauses of comparison may be introduced by conjunctions as, like, as if, as though, than; correlative conjunctions as... as, so... as, as... as if.
Swithin’s pale eyes bulged as though he might suddenly have been afflicted with insight.
He spoke as timidly as if he were afraid of me.
An adverbial clause of comparison may correlate with adverbs in the comparative degree in the principal clause. In this case the clause refers to the predicate with its adverbial modifier. Thus in the sentence Mr. Direct’s broken wrist healed sooner than he desired the subordinate clause characterizes the predicate group healed sooner through comparison. The conjunction than is correlated with the adverb in the comparative degree sooner.
The indicative form can also be used.
They don’t have long intervals like they do at other theatres.
Note 1:
The difference between the use of as and like is important. As implies the idea of identification, as in: Let me speak to you as your father ought to (= I am your father and I am speaking to you in that character), whereas like implies the idea of mere comparison, as in: Let me speak to you like a father might (= I am not your father, but I am speaking in the way your father might).
Note 2:
The conjunctions as if and as though may also introduce appositive and predicative clauses, as the comparative meaning may combine with different syntactic connections.
She had a look as if she had something in her mouth.(appositive clause)
She looked as if she had something in her mouth. (predicative clause)
She looked at me as if nothing was wrong. (adverbial clause)
Clauses of comparison sometimes have inverted word order.
He was as obstinate as were most of his relatives.
Special mention should be made of cases when two subordinating devices are used to introduce a clause, usually a conjunction and a conjunctive word: than whose, than which, than where, or two conjunctions: than if. They bear double relation to the main clause, one of which is that of comparison.
He is never more present in my work than when no image of him is there. (comparative and temporal
relation)
The butler took his tip far more casually, far more naturally than if Dicky had offered to shake hands with
him. - чем если бы Дикки протянул ему руку (comparative and conditional relation)
The complex sentence with an adverbial clause of condition
§ 169. Adverbial clauses of this type contain some condition (either real or unreal) which makes the action in the main clause possible.
Adverbial clauses of condition may be introduced by conjunctions: if, unless, once, in case. There are also several conjunctions derived from verbal forms sometimes followed by the optional that: provided (that), providing (that), suppose (that), supposing (that), considering (that), given (that), granted (that), granting (that), admitting (that), presuming (that), seeing (that).