Who did it will repent. (who opens the subject clause)
I know who did it. (who opens the object clause)
They were what you call model girls. (what opens the predicative clause)
Whatever you may do you can’t save the situation. (whatever opens the adverbial concessive clause)
Conjunctive pronouns always combine two functions - notional and structural. They are notional words because they function as parts of the sentence within a clause and they are structural words because they serve as connectors or markers of the subordinate clause.
The compounds whoever, whatever, and whichever introduce subject and adverbial clauses and have a concessive meaning:
Whoever told you this may be mistaken.
Whichever you choose, I’ll help you.
Whatever may be the consequences, I insist on going on.
§ 227. Relative pronouns refer to persons and non-persons and open attributive clauses which modify words denoting these persons or non-persons. They are who, whose, which, that. Who, like its homonyms, has the category of case (who-whom), the others have no categories.
Relative pronouns, like conjunctive pronouns, have two functions - notional and structural: they are parts of the sentence and connectors between the main clause and the subordinate attributive clause they are used in. But unlike conjunctive pronouns they are always related (hence their name relative) to some noun or pronoun in the main clause. Compare the following sentences:
| Who he was is still a mystery(conjunctive pronoun) I don’t know which of the books is better. | That is the man who has saved your child (relative pronoun) Here is the book which the lecturer recommended. |
Conjunctive and relative pronouns do not coincide referentially: the conjunctive pronouns who and whose have only personal reference; the relative pronoun who has personal reference, but whose has dual reference (personal and non-personal); the conjunctive pronoun which has dual reference, whereas the relative which has only non-personal reference.
The man who stood at the gate was Jim.
Then the man whose face I still could not see began singing.
The village whose roofs were seen in the distance was N.
I picked up the letter which was on the window sill.
Relative pronouns may function in the subordinate attributive clause as subject, object, attribute, and adverbial modifier (with prepositions).
| Types of pronouns | The list of pronouns |
| Personal pronouns | The common case: I, you, he, she, it, we, they. The objective case: me, you, him, her, it, us, them. |
| Possessive pronouns | Conjoint forms: my, your, his, her, its, our, their. Absolute forms: mine, yours, his, hers, its, ours, theirs. |
| Reflexive pronouns | myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves. |
| Demonstrative pronouns | this, that, these, those, such, same. |
| Indefinite pronouns | some, something, somebody, someone; any, anything, anybody, anyone. |
| Negative pronouns | no, nothing, nobody, no one, none, neither. |
| Universal pronouns | all, each, both, either, every, everything, everybody, everyone. |
| Detaching pronouns | other, another. |
| Reciprocal pronouns | each other, one another. |
| Interrogative pronouns | who, what, which, whose, whoever, whatever, whichever. |
| Conjunctive pronouns | who, what, which, whose, whoever, whatever, whichever. |
| Relative pronouns | who, whose, which, that. |
§ 228. The numeral denotes an abstract number or the order of thing in succession.
In accordance with this distinction the numerals fall into two groups cardinal numerals (cardinals) and ordinal numerals (ordinals).
| Cardinals | Ordinals |
| 0 nought, zero 1 one 2 two 3 three 4 four 5 five 6 six 7 seven 8 eight 9 nine 10 ten 11 eleven 12 twelve 13 thirteen 14 fourteen 15 fifteen 16 sixteen 17 seventeen 18 eighteen 19 nineteen 20 twenty 21 twenty-one, etc. 30 thirty 40 forty 50 fifty 60 sixty 70 seventy 80 eighty 90 ninety 100 one (a) hundred 101 one (a) hundred and one, etc. 1,000 one (a) thousand 1,001 one (a) thousand and one, etc. 100,000 one hundred thousand 1.00.0 one million 1.000.001 one million and one, etc. | 1st first 2nd second 3rd third 4th fourth 5th fifth 6th sixth 7th seventh 8th eighth 9th ninth 10th tenth 11th eleventh 12th twelfth 13th thirteenth 14th fourteenth 15th fifteenth 16th sixteenth 17th seventeenth 18th eighteenth 19th nineteenth 20th twentieth 21st twenty-first, etc. 30th thirtieth 40th fortieth 50th fiftieth 60th sixtieth 70th seventieth 80th eightieth 90th ninetieth 100th (one) hundredth 101st (one) hundred and first, etc. 1,000th (one) thousandth 1,001st one thousand and first, etc. 100,000th (one) hundred thousandth 1,000,000th (one) millionth 1,000,001st (one) million and first, etc. |
The Cardinals
§ 229. Among the cardinals there are simple, derived, and compound words.
The cardinals from one to twelve, hundred, thousand, million are simple words; those from thirteen to nineteen are derived from the corresponding simple ones by means of the suffix -teen; the cardinals denoting fens are derived from the corresponding simple ones by means of the suffix -ty.
Note:
Mind the difference in the spelling of the stem in three and thirteen (thirty), four and forty, five and
fifteen (fifty).
The cardinals from twenty-one to twenty-nine, from thirty-one to thirty-nine, etc. and those over hundred are compounds.
In cardinals consisting of tens and units the two words are hyphenated:
| 21 - twenty-one, | 35 - thirty-five, | 72 - seventy-two, etc. |
In cardinals including hundreds and thousands the words denoting units and tens are joined to those denoting hundreds, thousands, by means of the conjunction and:
103 - one hundred and three,
225 - two hundred and twenty-five,
3038 - three thousand and thirty-eight,
9651 - nine thousand six hundred and fifty-one.
Note:
If not part of a composite numeral the words hundred, thousand and million in the singular are always used with the indefinite article; a hundred pages, a thousand ways; in composite numerals both a and one are possible, but one is less common; a (one) hundred and fifty pages.
The words for common fractions are also composite. They are formed from cardinals denoting the numerator and substantivized ordinals denoting the denominator. If the numerator is a numeral higher than one, the ordinal in the denominator takes the plural form. The numerator and denominator may be joined by means of a hyphen or without it:
1/3 - one-third (one third),
2/7 - two-sevenths (two sevenths), etc.
In mixed numbers the numerals denoting fractions are joined to the numerals denoting integers (whole numbers) by means of the conjunction and:
3 1/5 - three and one-fifth,
20 3/8 - twenty and three-eighths.
In decimal fractions the numerals denoting fractions are joined to those denoting whole numbers by means of the words point or decimal:
0.5 - zero point (decimal) five,
2.3 - two point (decimal) three,
0,5 - zero decimal five,
0,005 - zero decimal zero zero five.
The ordinals
§ 230. Among the ordinals there are also simple, derivative and compound words.
The simple ordinals are first, second and third.
The derivative ordinals are derived from the simple and derivative cardinals by means of the suffix -th:
four-fourth, ten-tenth, sixteen-sixteenth, twenty-twentieth, etc.
Before the suffix -th the final у is replaced by ie:
thirty - thirtieth, etc.
Mind the difference in the spelling of the stems in the following cardinals and ordinals:
five-fifth, nine-ninth.
The compound ordinals are formed from composite cardinals. In this case only the last component of the compound numeral has the form of the ordinal:
twenty-first, forty-second, sixty-seventh, one hundred and first, etc.
§ 231. Numerals do not undergo any morphological changes, that is, they do not have morphological categories. In this they differ from nouns with numerical meaning. Thus the numerals ten (десять), hundred (сто), thousand (тысяча) do not have plural forms:
two hundred and fifty, four thousand people, etc.,
whereas the corresponding homonymous nouns ten (десяток), hundred (сотня), thousand (тысяча) do:
to count in tens, hundreds of people, thousands of birds, etc.
§ 232. Numerals combine mostly with nouns and function as their attributes, usually as premodifying attributes. If a noun has several premodifying attributes including a cardinal or an ordinal, these come first, as in:
three tiny green leaves, seven iron men, the second pale little boy, etc.
The only exception is pronoun determiners, which always begin a series of attributes:
| his second beautiful wife; these four rooms; | her three little children; every second day, etc. |
If both a cardinal and an ordinal refer to one head-noun the ordinal comes first:
the first three tall girls, the second two grey dogs, etc.
Nouns premodified by ordinals are used with the definite article:
The first men in the moon, the third month, etc.
When used with the indefinite article, they lose their numerical meaning and acquire that of a pronoun (another, one more), as in:
a second man entered, then a third
(вошел еще один человек, потом еще).
Postmodifying numerals combine with a limited number of nouns. Postmodifying cardinals are combinable with some nouns denoting items of certain sets of things:
pages, paragraphs, chapters, parts of books, acts and scenes of plays, lessons in textbooks, apartments
and rooms, buses or trams (means of transport), grammatical terms, etc.;
room two hundred and three, page ten, bus four, participle one, etc.
Note:
In such cases the cardinals have a numbering meaning and thus differ semantically from the ordinals which have an enumerating meaning. Enumeration indicates the order of a thing in a certain succession of things, while numbering indicates a number constantly attached to a thing either in a certain succession or in a certain set of things. Thus, the first room (enumeration) is not necessarily room one (numbering), etc. Compare:
the first room I looked into was room five,
or
the second page that he read was page twenty-three, etc.
Postmodifying ordinals occur in combinations with certain proper names, mostly those denoting the members of well-known dynasties:
King Henry VIII - King Henry the Eighth,
Peter I - Peter the First, etc.
Mind the position of the article in such phrases. It is always attached to the numeral.
When used as substitutes numerals combine with various verbs:
I saw five of them. They took twenty.
As head-words modified by other words numerals are combinable with:
1) prepositional phrases:
the first of May, one of the men, two of them, etc.
2) pronouns:
every three days, all seven, each fifth, etc.
3) adjectives:
the best three of them, the last two weeks, etc.
4) particles:
just five days ago, only two, only three books, he is nearly sixty, etc.