Грамматика английского языка Морфология. Синтаксис (стр. 61 из 71)
The difference between conjunctive words and relative words lies in their role within the sentence or clause. In the case of conjunctive words the choice is determined by the structure and meaning of the subordinate clause itself:
I don’t know who he is. (who is a predicative: he is who)
I don’t know where he is. (where is an adverbial: he is where)
I don’t know when he will come next time. (when is an adverbial: he will come next time when)
In the case of relative words the choice depends on the antecedent: in the main clause:
This is the man whom we spoke about yesterday.
This is the book which I promised you.
This is the place where we live.
This is the time when we usually have dinner.
When clauses are joined by connectors they are said to be joined syndetically. If no special linking element is used they are said to be joined asyndetically. In some cases inversion is employed as a signal to indicate the subordination of one clause to another.
Some subordinating conjunctions are homonymous with prepositions (like, fill), some with both prepositions and adverbs (after, since, before). Some are homonymous with participles (supposing, provided), some resemble nouns and nominal phrases denoting time (the very moment, the next time, the instant, the second) or adverbs (immediately, directly, once).
§ 146. Although the relationship of subordination requires only two members, a complex sentence may consist of more than two clauses. It may form a hierarchy of clauses. This is called consecutive or successive subordination.
I see [that you have lost the key (which I gave you)]
Accordingly the structure of the sentence is:
Main clauses ← Subordinate clause ← Subordinate clause
The main clause may have several subordinate clauses of equal rank, that is coordinated with one another. This kind of relationship is called parallel subordination or co-subordination, and the subordinate clauses are homogeneous.
I know that you are afraid of me and that you suspect me of something.
In this case the structure of the sentence is:
 Main clause | Subordinate clause | and | Subordinate clause |
The main clause may have several subordinate clauses with different functions.
All she saw was that she might go to prison for a robbery she had committed years ago.
| Main clause All... was... | <—————————————— | Predicative clause ... that she might go to prison for a robbery... | ||
| ↑ | ↑ | |||
| Attributive clause.. ...she saw... | Attributive clause .. .she had committed years ago. | |||
Occasionally the two ways of joining clauses may result in a sentence of great complexity, when two or more main clauses are coordinated, each of them being the “main” in relation to their subordinate clauses.
The walls were panelled, because this was the office of the department chairman, and because this
department was physics, the panels held small engraved portraits of Newton, Leibnitz, Faraday, and other
scientists.
| Main clause The walls were panelled | —————and———————— | main clause the panels held small engraved portraits of... scientists |
| ↑ | ↑ | |
| Subordinate clause of cause...because this was the office of the department chairman | Subordinate clause of cause ...because this department was physics... |
§ 147. Subordination is used to join clauses with a different degree of interdependence or fusion, in the same way as parts of the sentence are joined to one another with a different intensity of connection. Therefore some clauses - subject, predicative, most object clauses - are obligatory for the completeness of main parts, which are otherwise deficient. For instance, in the sentence I think you are right it is impossible to drop the object clause, as the part I think makes no sense. In the same way if we drop the predicative clause in the sentence My opinion was that there was something behind, the part left *My opinion was is ungrammatical.
As can be seen from the examples given above, the role of a subordinate clause for the completeness of the main clause is closely connected with the function of the former.
Most adverbial clauses are optional, not essential for the completeness of the main clause. Thus if we drop the subordinate part in the following sentence, the part left will be identical with a simple sentence.
We’ll have dinner at 8 o’clock, when you come.
We’ll have dinner at 8 o'clock.
According to its syntactic function and the word it refers to, the subordinate clause may be placed before, after, or in the middle of the main clause. Punctuation also depends on these factors: if closely connected, a clause may be joined without any punctuation mark.
I know he is here.
This is the man I told you about.
If the connection is rather loose the clause may be commad off.
Should you see him, give him my regards.
In some cases, especially in the case of asyndetic connection, a subordinate clause may be separated by a dash to mark the borderline between the clauses.
The evil simply was - he had missed his vocation: he should have been a soldier, and circumstances had
made him a priest.
Semantically the main clause generally dominates the subordinate clause, as it contains the main information of the utterance. However, there are cases when one part is as important as the other, and even cases when the subordinate clause is the central informative part of the sentence and the main clause is less important, introductory, maintaining only the immediate communicative connection with the listener:
I asked him if he knew the man.
There are cases when the main clause is relegated to a link-verb only:
What he says is not what he thinks.
Complex sentences are classified according to the function of the subordinate clauses (that is, according to their meaning and position in relation to the main clause).
Functional classification of subordinate clauses
§ 148. Subordinate clauses function as different parts of the sentence (subject, predicative, object, apposition, attribute, adverbial modifier). Traditionally these numerous types of clauses are arranged in three groups: nominal clauses (that is, clauses functioning as nouns in various syntactical positions), attributive clauses, and adverbial clauses.
The complex sentence with nominal clauses
§ 149. All nominal clauses have a function approximating to that of a noun or a nominal phrase. They may fulfil the function of a basic part of the main clause: a subject clause functions as subject of the main clause which has no subject of its own, a predicative clause functions as predicative to the link verb within the main clause; an object clause refers to verbs in different forms and functions, to adjectives, statives and occasionally to nouns, and may be obligatory or optional. Another type of the nominal clause - an appositive clause, refers to a noun either with a very general meaning or requiring additional information and is therefore essential to the meaning of the sentence.
Owing to their essential structural and semantic role in the sentence, all nominal clauses are very closely connected with the main clause, and if such a clause is removed, both the structure and meaning of the sentence are changed or become ungrammatical. Because of the close relationship between the clauses the complex sentence is pronounced as one whole, and the subordinate clause is not commad off, unless it is much extended and contains constructions or detached parts.
Since nominal clauses function as essential structural parts of the sentence, their relations to the main clause are confined to such purely grammatical sentential relations as subjective, predicative, objective and appositive.
The complex sentence with a subject clause
§ 150. A subject clause may be introduced by conjunctions (that, if, whether, whether... or, because, the way) or connectives. The latter may be either conjunctive pronouns (who, whoever, what, whatever, which) or conjunctive adverbs (where, wherever, when, whenever, how, why).
Types of subject clauses
§ 151. Complex sentences with subject clauses may be of two patterns:
I. When a subject clause precedes the predicate of the main clause:
What I need is a piece of good advice.
Whether I talked or not made little difference.
Because I ask too many questions does not mean I am curious.
How the book will sell depends on its plot and the author.
That he is a madman in an advanced stage of mania goes without saying.
Whoever moved in next would need it more than I.
Subject clauses of this type cannot be joined asyndetically, as the opening words signal the subordinate status of the clause. The main clause having no subject is deficient in its structure and meaning unless joined with the subordinate clause. Thus the combination of words *is a good piece of advice is neither complete in its structure nor in its meaning without the subject:
What you say is a good piece of advice.
II. When a subject clause is in final position, the usual place of the subject being occupied by formal it:
It seemed unfair to him that he should suffer more than his wife.
It is understood that modern science allows such experiments.
In exclamatory sentences the formal it may be only implied.
How wonderful that they should meet at last! (How wonderful it is...)
In this pattern of the complex sentence the subject clause may be joined asyndetically.
The complex sentence with a predicative clause
§ 152. A predicative clause may be introduced by conjunctions (that, whether, whether... or, as, as if, as though, because, lest, the way), or connectives. The latter may be conjunctive pronouns (who, whoever, what, whatever, which) or conjunctive adverbs (where, wherever, when, whenever, how, why).
The fact was that he had forgotten about it.
The only reason for my coining is because I hoped to see you again.
Our fear was lest we should miss him in the crowd.
That’s what he wants you to think.
The choice of conjunction is closely connected with the meaning of the word functioning as the subject of the main clause. Thus the conjunction because is used when the word functioning as subject expresses reason, the conjunction whether — when it expresses doubt or implies choice. The connective when is used when the noun functioning as subject expresses a temporal notion (time, day, evening, moment) and the connective where is used when it denotes a place. Thus in the sentence given above The only reason for my coming is because I hoped to see you again the meaning of the subject reason predetermines the use of the conjunction because. In the same way in the sentence The question is whether we can manage without him the meaning of the subject question predetermines the conjunction whether.
This, however, does not mean that a certain conjunction is the only possible one, and that no other can be used after a certain word functioning as subject.
If the subject denotes order, proposal, request, suggestion, arrangement, desire, etc., the conjunction that is generally used, followed by a clause with the predicate in the subjunctive mood (should + infinitive).
The regulation was that the first examination should be done in writing.
Our proposal is that you should join in.
Their suggestion was that no one should interfere.
Predicative clauses with comparative meaning are introduced by the comparative conjunctions as, as if, as though.
It was as though our last meeting was forgotten.
Everything remained as it used to be in this room.
She looks as if she were ill.
Note:
Predicative clauses introduced by the conjunctions as, as if, as though should not be confused with adverbial clauses of comparison introduced by the same conjunctions. A predicative clause immediately follows the link verb, which does not express complete predication without the clause. In the case of an adverbial clause, the preceding verb is that of complete predication and the clause may be distant from the verb it modifies, for instance:
Mrs Abinger hated to be talked to as if she were a child.
The Frenchman nodded vigorously, as though it were the most reasonable statement in the world.
Predicative clauses may be joined asyndetically. In this case they are usually separated by a comma or a dash.
The result was, his master raised his wages a hundred a month.
As can be seen from the above examples, a predicative clause has a fixed position in the sentence - it always follows a link verb, with which it forms a compound nominal predicate. The link verbs used with predicative clauses are far less numerous than those used with the nonclausal predicatives. The most common are to be, to feel, to look, to seem. Less frequent are to appear, to remain, to become, to sound, to taste.
Types of predicative clauses
§ 153. Predicative clauses may occur as parts of two structurally different kinds of sentences:
I. They may follow the main clause in which the subject is a notional word, although it usually has a very general meaning (thing, question, problem, news, sensation, evil, rule, trouble, etc.). In this case the predicative clause discloses the meaning of the subject.
The rule was that they walked down to the cliff path and travelled up in the lift.
The trouble was whether we could manage it ourselves or not.
The problem is not who will go, but who will stay.
II. The predicative clause may follow the main clause in which the subject is expressed by the impersonal pronoun it. In this case the predicative clause describes the situation, either directly or by means of comparison.
It appears he hasn’t been there.
It sounded as if even the spring began by act of Parliament.
Note:
Care should be taken not to confuse this last type of sentence with complex sentences with a subject clause, which also begins with it. In the latter case the predicate of the main clause is complete, whereas in the case of a predicative clause it consists only of the link verb. Compare the following sentences: